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A  CARRARA  MARBLE  QUARRY. 


[Frontispiece. 


MARBLE  AND 
MARBLE  WORKING 


A    HANDBOOK   FOR    ARCHITECTS,    SCULPTORS,    MARBLE 

QUARRY   OWNERS    AND    WORKERS,    AND    ALL 

ENGAGED    IN    THE    BUILDING    AND 

DECORATIVE   INDUSTRIES 


BY 


W.   G.   RENWICK 

\\ 

AUTHOR  OF  "THE  MARBLE  INDUSTRY,"  "THE  WORKING  OF  MARBLE  FOR 

DECORATIVE  PURPOSES,"  ETC. 


SEith     tomeraus  IUn0tnttiou0 


NEW   YORK 

T  >    D.    VAN   NOSTRAND   COMPANY,   INC.    T  D 
250  FOURTH  AVENUE 

1909 


LUN  DON  : 

PRINTED  BY  WILLIAM  CLOWES  AND  SONS,   LIMITED, 
DUKE  STREET,  STAMFORD  STREET,  S.E.,  AND  GREAT  WINDMILL  STREET,  W. 


•\ 


PREFACE. 


NEARLY  five  years  ago  the  writer  was  spending  an  evening 
in  company  with  a  member  of  the  architectural  profession 
and  a  mutual  friend,  who  was  engaged  on  the  staff  of  a 
building  trades  journal,  the  time  being  passed  in  what 
is  ordinarily  known  as  "talking  shop."  The  journalist 
had  been  taken  to  task  for  certain  misstatements 
respecting  marble  and  its  working  that  had  appeared 
in  recent  issues  of  his  periodical,  and  for  which  he 
admitted  responsibility,  and  the  conversation  ranged 
for  some  time  on  the  use  and  abuse  of  marble  for 
various  purposes,  and  the  difficulties  experienced  in 
obtaining  information  respecting  the  suitability  of 
particular  marbles  for  projected  uses. 

It  was  suggested  that  there  was  room  for  a  handbook 
on  marble,  which,  while  not  being  abstruse,  should  yet 
be  descriptive  of  the  various  types  of  marble  and  the 
processes  the  material  went  through  from  quarry  to 
completed  work ;  it  should  also  contain  a  list  of  the 
principal  marbles  in  ordinary  use  in  the  country,  with  a 
descriptive  note  of  each  variety,  and,  where  possible,  an 
accessible  instance  of  its  employment.  This  was  the 
origin  of  the  series  of  articles  contributed  to  the  pages 
of  "The  Quarry ".  during  1907-8,  which,  after  con- 
siderable revision  and  additions,  form  the  basis  of  the 
work  now  presented. 


vi  PKEFACE. 

Thanks  are  due  to  Sir  Archibald  Geikie  and  Dr.  G.  P. 
Merrill,  of  the  United  States  National  Museum,  and  their 
respective  publishers,  for  permission  to  use  extracts  from 
their  copyright  works  having  reference  to  the  geology 
and  chemistry  of  marble ;  and  to  Mr.  Arthur  Lee  and 
Mr.  William  Brindley  for  similar  permission  in  respect 
of  its  ancient  working ;  also  to  the  Council  of  the  Eoyal 
Institute  of  British  Architects  for  permission  to  use 
extracts  from  the  Transactions  and  Journal  of  the 
Institute. 

The  marbles  from  which  several  of  the  colour  repro 
ductions  have  been  obtained  were  kindly  supplied  by 
Arthur  Lee  &  Bros.,  Ltd.,  and  White,  Allom  &  Co., 
the  samples  having  been  selected  by  the  writer  as 
average  quality  material.  Some  of  the  colour  blocks 
have  also  been  loaned  by  firms  interested  in  the  respective 
marbles.  The  writer  desires  to  express  his  obligations  to 
M.  Marcel  Leclercq,  the  representative  in  the  United 
Kingdom  of  La  Societe  Anonyme  de  Merbes-le-Chateau, 
and  Mr.  K.  0.  Lamigeon,  of  Lamigeon  &  Co.,  Ltd., 
for  information  respecting  the  trade  in  Belgium  and 
France ;  also  to  the  many  friends  in  the  British  Isles, 
on  the  Continent,  and  in  the  United  States  of  America, 
who  have  kindly  assisted  with  information ;  as  well  as  to 
several  of  the  leading  firms,  both  of  machinery  manu- 
facturers and  quarry  owners  and  workers,  who  have 
made  offers  of  matter  for  illustration  purposes. 

The  matter  contained  in  the  work  is  mainly  derived 
from  the  personal  experience  and  observation  of  the 
writer,  who  has  been  engaged  in  various  capacities  in 
the  trade  during  the  past  twelve  years.  The  leading 
establishments  of  Europe  have  been  visited  during  this 


PREFACE.  vii 

period,  and  a  practical  acquaintance  obtained  of  quarrying 
and  working  methods  and  appliances. 

No  apology  is  needed  for  the  introduction  of  the  work. 
Marble  is  perhaps  the  least  known  of  all  the  materials 
employed  in  a  building.  Its  literature  is  scanty  and  not 
up-to-date,  the  manner  of  its  selection  for  use  is  hap- 
hazard rather  than  methodical,  and,  generally  speaking, 
there  are  few  building  materials  or  accessories  respecting 
which  knowledge  is  less  readily  obtainable. 

The  writer  has  endeavoured  to  fill  the  void  hitherto 
prevailing.  If  the  results  of  his  efforts  are  to  check  the 
use  of  marble  in  places  where  it  is  not  likely  to  be 
of  service,  to  indicate  the  more  suitable  qualities  for 
particular  purposes,  and  to  encourage  its  employment 
where  it  may  be  used  to  advantage,  the  time  spent  in  the 
preparation  of  the  work  will  not  have  been  wasted. 


WM.  G.  RENWICK. 


51,  TREMAINE  ROAD, 

ANERLEY,  S.E. 

February,  1909. 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

PREFACE v 

CHAPTER    I. 

INTRODUCTORY —THE   CHEMISTRY  OF  MARBLE — ITS  GEOLOGICAL 

FORMATION — A  SHORT  CLASSIFICATION  OF  MARBLES      .      .         1 

CHAPTER    II. 

ANTIQUITY  OF  THE  MARBLE  INDUSTRY — ANCIENT  QUARRIES  AND 

METHODS  OF  WORKING 18 

CHAPTER    III. 

MODERN  QUARRIES  AND  QUARRYING  METHODS — MACHINERY  USED 
IN  QUARRYING  —  EUROPEAN  AND  AMERICAN  SYSTEMS 
COMPARED 25 

CHAPTER    IV. 
MARBLE  AS  BUILDING  MATERIAL 51 

CHAPTER    V. 

USES  OF  MARBLE  (OTHER  THAN  FOR  BUILDING  PURPOSES)   .      .       60 

CHAPTER    VI. 

SOURCES  OF  PRODUCTION  :  ITALIAN  MARBLES 69 

CHAPTER    VII. 

SOURCES  OF  PRODUCTION  :  FRENCH  AND  BELGIAN  MARBLES  .      .       76 

CHAPTER    VIII. 
SOURCES  OF  PRODUCTION  :  GREEK  MARBLES 85 

CHAPTER    IX. 
SOURCES  OF  PRODUCTION  :  VARIOUS  ....       90 


x  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER    X. 

PAGE 

SOURCES  OF  PRODUCTION  :    MARBLES  OP  THE   UNITED   KINGDOM 

AND  BRITISH  COLONIES.      .      .      ...      .      .     r.      .      .      103 

CHAPTER    XI. 

CONTINENTAL  MARBLE  WORKING 119 

CHAPTER    XII. 
MARBLE  WORKING  MACHINERY 130 

CHAPTER    XIII. 

MARBLE     WORKING     IN     THE     UNITED     STATES  —  AMERICAN 

MACHINERY  DESCRIBED  AND  COMPARED 151 

CHAPTER    XIV. 
MARBLE  WORKING  :  A  BRITISH  INDUSTRY 161 

CHAPTER    XV. 

MARBLE  SUBSTITUTES  AND  IMITATIONS 173 

CHAPTER    XVI. 

PRACTICAL   POINTS   FOR  THE   CONSIDERATION  OF  ARCHITECTS — 

HINTS  ON  THE  SELECTION  OF  MARBLE  182 


SUPPLEMENTARY. 

LIST  OF  MARBLES  IN  ORDINARY  USE,  WITH  DESCRIPTIVE  NOTES 

AND  INSTANCES  OF  THEIR  APPLICATION  187 


INDEX 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 


FIG.  PAGE 

A  Carrara  Marble  Quarry Frontispiece 

1.  Marble  Formation  at  Middleton-by-Wirks  worth  facing  page  4 

2.  Saccharoidal  Marble  :  Hotel  Majestic,  Harrogate    ...  10 

3.  Variegated  Marble  :   Hotel  Russell,  W.C 12 

4.  Brecciated  Marble  :  Hotel  Russell,  W.C 14 

5.  Laminated  Marble  :  New  Sessions  House,  E.C 15 

6.  Ancient  Marble  Quarry  at  Skyros,  Grecian  Archipelago      .  22 

7.  Wedging  :  Trou  de  Versailles,  Ranee,  Belgium  ....  27 

8.  Sullivan  Rock  Drill 29 

9.  Ingersoll  Rock  Drill  mounted  on  Tripod 29 

9A.  Ingersoll  Rock  Drill  mounted  on  Column      ....".  29 

10.  Sullivan  Quarry  Bar 30 

11.  Wire  Saw  in  Operation,  Tinos,  Grecian  Archipelago      .      .  32 

12.  Enlarged  Photo  of  Cut  made  with  Wire  Saw,  Skyros     .      .  33 

13.  The  Penetrating  Pulley,  Bergniorny,  Belgium    ....  35 

14.  Perforating  Drill  for  Wire  Saw  Sinkings 37 

15.  Wardwell  Channeller,  Proctor,  Vermont,  U.S.A.     ...  39 

16.  Ingersoll  Track  Channeller 41 

17.  Sullivan  Channeller,  Vermont,  U.S. A 43 

18.  A  Vermont  (U.S.A.)  Marble  Quarry        .      .      facing  page  45 

19.  The  Gadder  at  Work  on  Undercut  Slope 45 

19 A.  The  Gadder  at  Work  Cutting  Angle  Pieces 45 

20.  Mining  for  Marble,  Vermont,  U.S.A .  46 

21.  Interior  of  a  Tate,  Georgia  (U.S.A.),  Marble  Quarry     .      .  48 

22.  Undercutting  with  the  Sullivan  Channeller 49 

23.  A  Pentelikon  Doorway 52 

24.  Building  in  Marble facing  page  54 

25.  Marmocrete  :  Internal  Angles 56 

2 5 A.  Marmocrete  :  External  Angles 56 

26.  "  Cleanliness  and  Light "  :  A  Hospital  Operating-Room      .  63 

27.  Marble  Pulpit,  Bombay  Cathedral 67 

28.  Marble  Debris  at  Carrara 70 

29.  Transporting  Blocks  from  Quarry,  Carrara    ...  .  71 

30.  The  Funicular  Railway,  Sagro  Valley,  Carrara  facing  page  72 

b 


xii  LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 

FIG.  PAGE 

31.  After  a  Blast,  Carrara       . .      .  75 

32.  A  Block  of  Ranee  Marble .      .      .  81 

33.  Petit  Granit  Quarry,  Soignies,  Belgium  ......  83 

34.  A  Pentelikon  Quarry 86 

35.  Stacks  of  Greek  Marble  for  British  Use  ......  88 

36.  Marble  Quarrying  at  Macael,  Spain   ........  92 

37.  A  Swedish  Marble  Quarry 96 

38.  A  Vermont  (U.S.A.)  Marble  Stack-yard.      .       facing  page  98 

39.  Arizona  Onyx  at  Aberystwith 100 

40.  A  British  Marble  Quarry,  Ashburton,  Devonshire  .      .      .  106 

41.  Carved    Panels   in    Derbyshire    Marble:    the    Moot    Hall, 

Wirksworth -.      .      .      .      .       .  108 

42.  View  in  lona  Marble  Quarry,  Western  Hebrides      .      .      .  110 

43.  Frosterley  Marble  Columns,  Norwich  R.C.  Church  .  .112 

44.  Workshop  Interior,  La  Bussiere,  Belgium 121 

45.  Interior  of  Machine  Shop,  La  Bussiere,  Belgium       .      .      .  123 
45A.  Interior  of  Machine  Shop,  Cousolre,  France 125 

46.  One  of  Messrs.  Cripps' Studii,  Carrara     .      .       facing  pay e  127 

47.  A  Well-known  Type  of  Frame  Saw    .      .      .      .      .      .      .  131 

48.  The  Diamond  Saw,  with  Abrasive  Attachment  .      .      .       .133 

49.  The  Rotary  Sanding  arid  Polishing  Machines,  Hayes     .       .  135 

50.  The  "Jenny  Lind" 137 

51.  The  "  Steam  Mason "    .      .      .      .      ....      .      .      .  138 

52.  The  Universal  Stone-working  Machine 141 

5 2 A.  Sections  of  Mouldings  for  Fig.  52        .      ..      .      .      .      .  142 

53.  Masons  Working  with  Pneumatic  Tools,  Hueyapam,  Mexico  144 

54.  Double-action  Lathe  for  Marble  Working      .      .      .      .      .  146 

55.  Architectural  Carving  with  Pneumatic  Tools,  New  York, 

U.S.A.    .    ''..   • ...      .      .  153 

56.  South  Dover  (U.S.A.)  Quarry  in  Working  Order     .      .      .  154 

57.  Quarrying  Blocks  to  Size,  Kennesaw,  Georgia,  U.S.A.  .      .  156 

58.  Matched  Panel  of  Dark  Creole  Marble,  Georgia,  U.S.A.     .  157 

59.  The  Carborundum  Process  :  Works  Interior  at  Long  Island, 

New  York,  U.S.A.        .      .      ....      facing  page  158 

60.  British  Marble  Working  :  The  Saw  Frames,  Torquay     .      .  163 

61.  The  Marble  Works,  Torquay 165 

62.  The  Marble  Yard,  Hayes,  Middlesex        ......  166 

63.  Interior  of  Marble  Works,  Hayes,  Middlesex      facing  page  168 

64.  Reconstructed  Stone,  13,  City  Road,  E.C 176 

65.  A  Study  in  White  and  Green  :  Messrs.  Dewar's  Offices,  S.W.  189 

66.  A  Marble  Dado :  Hotel  Russell,  W.C 191 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS.  xiii 

FIG.  PAGE 

67.  A  Marble  Balcony  :  Hotel  Russell,  W.C 194 

68.  A  Decorative  Interior  :  Hotel  Russell,  W.C 200 

69.  American  Marble  for  London  Use  :  Messrs.  Dewar's  Offices, 

Haymarket,  S.W 204 

70.  An  Attractive  Treatment :  Indemnity  House,  E.G. .      .      .  208 

71.  A  Staircase  Landing  :  Hotel  Russell,  W.C 212 

72.  A  Sagro  Valley  (Carrara)  Quarry        .      .      .       faciny  page  216 


LIST    OF    PLATES. 

PLATE 

I.     Skyros  No.  12  (Grecian  Archipelago)  .      .      .  facing  page    22 

II.     Cippolino  (Eubcea,  Greece) „  ,,58 

III.  Breche  Violette  (Seravezza,  Italy) ....  ,,  „       74 

IV.  Skyros  No.  14A  (Grecian  Archipelago)  „  „       89 
V.     Yava  Onyx  (Arizona,  U.S.A.) „  ,,99 

VI.     Prince  Rock  Grey  and  Favositidse  (Devonshire 

Marbles) „  „     105 

VII.     Alomite  (Ontario,  Canada) „  ,,114 

VIII.     Light  Mazzano  (Brescia,  Italy)        ....  „  ,,127 

IX.     Frosterley  (Durham)  Marble „  ,,161 

X.     Agrellei  (Calabria,  Italy) „  ,,187 

XI.     Giallo  Antico  (N.  Africa) „  ,,199 

XII.     Clouded  Yellow  and  Spangled  Red,  or  Bay 

Vein  (Devonshire  Marbles)        ....  ,,  ,,210 

XIII.     Skyros  No.  14c  (Grecian  Archipelago)       .      .  „  ,,217 


MARBLE  AND  MARBLE  WORKING. 


CHAPTER   I. 

Introductory— The  Chemistry  of  Marble— Its  Geological  Formation— 
A  Short  Classification  of  Marble. 

OVER  twenty  years  have  elapsed/  ;s£ricev  a  work  was 
produced  dealing  with  the  marbles'  tis.e<l  Jn^j^ai';  5r-i£ain, 
and  the  methods  adopted  in  their  securing  and  working. 
The  changes  that  have  taken  place  during  this  period  in 
every  section  of  the  industry  have  been  so  extensive  in 
their  range,  and  so  far-reaching  in  their  effect,  that  a 
review  of  their  nature  cannot  fail  to  be  of  interest,  and 
possibly  will  be  instructive,  to  all  who  are  interested  either 
in  the  employment  or  working  of  the  material. 

The  opportunity  is  a  favourable  one  for  taking  a  brief 
retrospect.  During  the  period  under  review,  new  varieties 
of  marble  have  come  into  use  from  Italy,  Belgium,  Sweden, 
France,  Portugal,  Canada,  and  the  United  States  of 
America  ;  the  marbles  of  ancient  Greece  have  been  made 
available  for  use  after  a  lapse  of  nearly  twenty  centuries ; 
the  Numidian  marbles  are  again  employed  on  an  extensive 
scale,  and,  altogether,  the  range  of  material  that  is  readily 
obtainable  has  been  largely  increased.  The  uses  of  marble 
have  at  the  same  time  been  considerably  extended.  Hotels 
and  large  business  premises  are  nowadays  considered  in- 
complete without  their  marble  halls  ;  municipal,  bank, 

B 


2  MAKBLE  AND   MARBLE  WORKING. 

insurance,  and  general  office  buildings  are  similarly 
enriched ;  and  entire  erections,  cased  with  marble  from 
the  basement  to  the  chimneys,  are  not  uncommon  features 
of  British  twentieth  century  architecture.  Whether  the 
increased  demand  is  causatory,  or  resultant  to,  the  better 
facilities  that  are  prevailing  for  obtaining  and  working  the 
material  is  a  matter  for  economists  to  settle ;  in  either 
case  it  is  correct  to  state  that  the  processes — both  of 
quarrying  and  working — have  undergone  changes  as  great, 
if  not  greater,  than  have  occurred  in  any  branch  of  the 
building. -.and  .kindred  -trades.  The  introduction  of  the 
wire  saw1 'and  penetrating  pulley  throughout  Europe,  and 
the-'-imprQ^eiriients  itKat  have  been  made  in  channelling 
machinery  in  America,  have  greatly  facilitated  production, 
at  the  same  time  reducing  the  percentage  of  waste,  thus 
making  the  quarrying  of  dimension  stone  both  economical 
and  profitable.  Side  by  side  with  these  improvements, 
new  methods  of  working,  involving  the  manufacture  and 
employment  of  new  types  of  machinery,  have  been  intro- 
duced for  fashioning  the  material,  thus  enabling  work  to 
be  carried  out  in  less  time  and  with  greater  advantage  to 
all  concerned.  Attention  has  at  the  same  time  been  paid 
to  the  scientific  side  of  marble  production,  and  as  our 
knowledge  of  the  material  and  the  conditions  under  which 
it  was  formed  is  increased,  a  better  understanding  prevails 
as  to  the  uses  for  which  it  is  capable,  and  the  manner  in 
which  it  can  best  be  employed. 

Few  of  the  materials  that  go  to  the  making  up  of 
a  building  are  of  greater  interest,  either  to  the  student 
or  worker,  than  the  one  under  consideration.  The 
durability  of  marble  gives  it  an  exceptional  value  as 
a  means  of  perpetuating  the  best  in  architecture  ;  its  utility 


INTEODUCTOKY.  3 

in  positions  where  cleanliness  and  high  wearing  qualities 
are  required  is  without  an  equal ;  while  for  decorative 
effect,  the  infinite  variety  of  its  markings,  combined  with 
the  taste  that  can  be  exercised  in  displaying  and  control- 
ling the  colour  treatment,  while  adding  to  the  architect's 
responsibility,  gives  greater  scope  to  his  individuality,  and 
enables  him  to  design  and  carry  out  effects  .that  could  not 
be  secured  by  the  employment  of  any  other  medium.  The 
merchant  is  interested  in  securing  for  the  architect  new 
means  of  giving  expression  to  his  ideas,  and  the  manufac- 
turer is  interested  in  giving  effect  to  his  designs ;  while 
the  quarry  owner  is  interested  in  endeavouring  to  fill  the 
requirements  of  all  three,  and  this  in  a  material  that 
differs  in  texture  and  marking  with  almost  every  block 
secured.  From  the  stone  lying  in  the  quarry  to  the  slab 
fixed  on  the  wall  of  a  building,  every  operation  relating  to 
marble  is  of  interest. 

The  subject  may  be  treated  from  many  standpoints— 
the  geologist,  the  chemist,  the  architect,  the  quarryman, 
the  merchant,  and  the  workman,  each  regarding  the  matter 
from  his  own  point  of  view.  While  a  treatise  on  marble 
from  any  one  of  these  would  appeal  particularly  to  the 
individual,  it  is  possible  that  a  general  survey  of  its 
formation,  its  quarrying,  and  its  preparation,  may  contain 
something  of  interest  to  them  all. 

The  term  marble  is  one  that  is  variously  understood. 
From  the  scientist's  standpoint  only  metamorphosed  lime- 
stone should  be  included  in  its  definition.  Commercial 
men,  however,  are  seldom  scientists  during  business  hours, 
especially  if  science  interferes  with  their  turnover  ;  and 
although  a  strict  interpretation  may  limit  the  term  to 
crystalline  calcareous  and  magnesian  formations,  so  long 

B  2 


4  MARBLE  AND   MARBLE  WORKING. 

as  architects  and  quantity  surveyors  include  serpentines, 
breccias,  travertines,  alabaster,  and  sodalite  in  their 
specifications  of  marble  work  required,  the  manufacturer, 
knowing  what  is  wanted,  is  prepared  to  fill  the  contract 
to  the  best  of  his  ability,  without  troubling  as  to  whether 
what  he  is  supplying  should  or  should  not  be  termed 
marble.  Hence,  from  a  commercial  standpoint,  marble  is 
recognised  as  including  any  natural  stone  that  is  of  less 
hardness  than  granite,  having  a  sufficiently  close  texture 
to  take  and  retain  a  polished  face,  and  being  produced 
in  such  quantity  as  to  be  available  for  use  for  decorative 
purposes.  The  subject  being  here  treated  from  a  general 
point  of  view,  the  commercial,  rather  than  the  scientific, 
definition  is  adopted"  throughout. 

The  chemical  composition  of  marble  varies  to  a 
considerable  extent.*  With  geological^  marbles  the 
fundamental  element  in  practically  all  cases  is  calcium, 
which,  in  combination  with  carbon  dioxide  and  oxygen, 
forms  the  mineral  calcite  (CaC03)  =,parbon  dioxide  44  per 

f  u  \fJ  ^\  l^  \ 

cent,  lime  56  per  cent.,  or  the  rock  lfmestone7~~TJnder  the 
combined  influences  of  heat  and  strain,  limestone  under- 
goes a  gradual  process  known  as  marmorosis^  which,  while 
not  materially  affecting  its  chemical  composition/ results 
in  the  altered  or  metamorphosed  rock  becoming  highly 
crystalline  in  structure,  and  possessing  a  greater  density 
than  that  of  the  original. 

An  interesting  instance  of  the  occurrence  of  marmorosis 
can  be  traced  in  the  lower  beds  of  the  limestone  forma- 
tion at  Middleton-by-Wirksworth,  in  the  lower  Peak 

*For  fuller  information  respecting  the  chemistry  of  marbles,  see 
"  Stones  for  Building  and  Decoration,"  by  G.  P.  Merrill,  p.  18,  etc. 


NATURE'S  PROCESS  OF  MAKING  MARBLE.     5 

district  of  Derbyshire.  The  outcrop,  with  the  underlying 
strata,  is  of  carboniferous  age,  and  is  traversed  on  its 
eastern  boundary  by  a  deep  valley  known  as  the  "  Gulf  " 
(produced  by  a  fault  in  the  strata,  a  result  of  the  strain- 
ing incidental  to  Nature's  process  of  mountain -making), 
exposing  the  face  of  the  cliff.  An  examination  of  the  cliff 
face  discloses  the  presence  of  a  layer  of  igneous  rock, 
produced  by  a  flow  of  lava  during  the  carboniferous 
limestone  period,  and  separating  the  formation  into  entirely 
different  stones  (see  Fig.  1).  Above  the  layer  of  intruded 
rock  the  limestone  is  common  to  the  district  —  an 
unaltered  mountain  limestone.  Below,  the  heat  from  the 
lava,  extending  downwards,  has  caused  marmorosis  to  be 
set  up,  thus  altering  the  entire  structure  of  the  rock  and 
converting  the  limestone  into  marble.  Both  the  unaltered 
and  the  metamorphous  rock  are  of  economic  value.  The 
materials  from  the  upper  layers,  or  mountain  limestone 
beds,  are  used  for  lime  burning,  fluxing  material,  roadstone, 
etc.,  while  the  marmorised  layers  underlying  the  igneous 
intrusion  form  the  Hopton-Wood  stone  of  commerce. 
The  metamorphosed  rock  or  marble  beds  only  occur  below 
the  lava  outflow,  which  covers  a  comparatively  small  area, 
while  the  unaltered  rock,  or  mountain  limestone,  is  common 
to  the  entire  Peak  district. 

No  variety   of  marble  is  chemically  pure.     They  jdl^ 
contain  ^greater  or  less  amount  of  foreign  material,  some- 
times chemically  combined,  sometimes  as  admixed  minerals. 
— — " 

The  more  common  of  these  substances  are  carbonate  of 
magnesia,  the  carbonates  and  oxides  of  iron,  silica,  clay, 
carbonaceous  matter,  mica,  talc,  and  other  minerals.  It  is 
the  presence_of_these  additions  /that  gives  to  coloured 
marbles  the  veins,  markings.  anoTnowerings  that  make  the 


6  MARBLE  AND  MARBLE  WORKING. 

material  of  such  availability  for  purposes  of  decoration. 
The  various  shades  of  yellow,  pink,  and  red  found  in 
coloured  marbles  are  mainly  due  to  the  iron  oxides,  the 
shades  from  bluish-grey  to  black  are  generally  owing  to 
the  presence  of  carbonaceous  matter,  the  greens  are 
caused  by  the  intrusion  of  iron  and  copper  sulphides, 
mica,  and  talc. 

Limestones  which  contain  10  per  cent,  and  upwards 
of  carbonate  of  magnesia  are  known  as  magnesian  or 
dolomitic  limestones.  They  may  be  crystalline  in  texture, 
showing  all  the  variations  common  to  ordinary  limestones, 
from  which  they  can  only  be  distinguished  by  chemical 
tests.  When  the  proportion  of  carbonate  of  magnesia 
displaces  calcite  to  the  extent  of  45 '65  per  cent,  the 
stone  is  known  as  dolomite.  Many  marbles  are  derived 
from  magnesian  limestones  and  dolomites,  the  chief 
distinction  being  the  increased  hardness  and  higher 
specific  gravity  of  the  latter.  The  specific  gravity  of 
best  white  marble  (Carrara  statuary)  is  2*6  to  2*7,  that 
of  dolomite  is  2- 8  to  2 '95. 

Fossiliferous  limestones  may  be  either  calcareous  or 
dolomitic.  The  fossil  remains  are  in  some  cases  nearly 
perfect,  in  others  they  have  been  replaced  by  crystallised 
calcite.  Crinoidal  limestone  is  similar  in  formation,  but 
is  made  up  of  fossil  crinoid  fragments.  Several  of  our 
best-known  marbles  are  derived  from  these  varieties. 

Many  of  the  varieties  of  serpentine  are  considered  as 
marbles,  although  their  composition  differs  entirely  from 
those  heretofore  considered.  Serpentine  consists  mainly 
of  the  mineral  serpentine — a  hydrous  silicate  of  magnesia 
(Mg3Si207  +  2H20)  =  magnesia  43 '48,  silica  43*48,  water 
13*04.  It  occurs  admixed  with  calcite  and  dolomite, 


THE   CHEMISTRY   OF  MARBLE.  7 

and  is  often  found  in  extensive  deposits.  Many  beds  of 
serpentine  result  from  olivine-bearing  rocks.  The  greater 
number  of  green  marbles  are  serpentinous. 

The  varieties  of  marble  hitherto  noted  are  meta- 
morphosed rocks,  i.e.,  rocks  that  have  undergone  a 
change  in  their  structure  either  from  physical  or  chemical 
agencies.  There  are  a  number  of  marbles,  commercially 
considered,  that  do  not  come  within  this  description. 
The  so-called  onyx  marbles  or  travertines  are  of  two 
kinds,  both  consisting  essentially  of  carbonate  of  lime. 
The  one  is  a  precipitation  of  lime  from  hot- water  springs 
that  has  accumulated  in  natural  basins,  and  the  other  a 
deposit  of  lime  by  the  action  of  cold  water  on  the  roof, 
walls,  and  floor  of  limestone  caves,  the  latter  taking  the 
form  either  of  stalactites  and  stalagmites,  or  of  pockets 
of  marble  formed  in  the  rifts  and  cracks  of  the  cave.  The 
veiuings  and  colourings  are  formed  by  metallic  oxides.* 

Alabaster  is  generally  included  in  marble  work  specifi- 
cations. It  is  a  light  cream,  sometimes  white  variety 
of  gypsum — calcium  sulphate  (CaSo4  +  2H20.)  =  sulphur 
tri-oxide  46*5  per  cent.,  lime  32 '6  per  cent,  water  20 '9 
per  cent.  The  varieties  in  general  use  for  decorative 
purposes  are  veined  and  mottled. 

The  geologic  occurrence  of  marble  is  of  all  ages  Jrqm 
Silurian,  in  which  ^u\ eluded  the  coral  marbles  of  Devon- 
shire and  Staffordshire,  through  the  Devonian,  Carboni- 
ferous, and  Permian  periods  of  Paleozoic  time  down  to  the 
Triassic,  Jurassic,  and  Cretaceous  periods  of  Mesozoic 
time,  in  the  latter  of  which  the  Istrian  marbles  and  those 
of  the  Pas  de  Calais  district  are  placed.  Some  of  the 

Of  y,v/j^ 
*  See  Arizona  Onyx,  pp.  98-9. 


8  MAEBLE  AND   MAEBLE  WOEKING. 

serpentines  are  derived  from  igneous  rocks,  and  the 
travertines  of  Algeria  are  Quaternary,  lying  upon  lime- 
stones of  Tertiary  (Middle  Miocene)  Age. 

The  saccharoidal  varieties  are  caused  by  metamor- 
phosis, due  to  intense  heat  and  pressure,  by  which  the 
original  calcium  carbonate  has  become  crystallised.* 
Where  the  original  rock  was  relatively  pure,  statuary 
marble  was  produced.  In  other  cases,  the  presence  of  im- 
purities gave  rise  to  the  various  colourings  and  markings 
that  add  to  the  beauty  of  the  material.  The  shrinkage 
of  the  mass  in  cooling  sometimes  caused  cracks  to  form  ; 
these  were  afterwards  filled  either  by  the  infiltration  of 
metallic  oxides,  causing  the  darker  varieties  of  veining, 
or  by  a  leaching  out  of  calcite  from  the  impure  rock,  that 
afterwards  crystallised,  giving  the  white  crystalline 
veinings  and  markings  so  often  seen.  Dr.  G.  P.  Merrill, 
in  his  "Treatise  on  Eocks,"  etc.,  states:  "The  crystalline 
limestones  and  dolomites  are  but  the  metamorphosed 
sedimentary  deposits  described  on  p.  143  (The  Calcareous 
Group  of  Aqueous  Eocks).  They  occur  associated  with 
rocks  of  all  ages,  but  only  in  regions  that  have  been 
subjected  to  disturbances,  such  as  the  folding  and  faulting 
incident  to  mountain  making,  or  the  heat  from  intruded 
igneous  rocks."  .'....."  The  name  marble  is  given  to  any 
calcareous  or  magnesian  rock  sufficiently  beautiful  to  be 
utilised  in  decorative  work."f 

Breccias  J  are  made  up  of  angular  fragments  of  older 
marbles,  sometimes  imbedded  in  a  pasty  magma,  which 

*See    Geikie's    "Text-book    of    Geology,"    4th    Edition    (1903), 
pp.  192,  250. 

t  "Treatise  on  Rocks,  Rock  Weathering,  and  Soils,"  p.  163. 
t  See  "  Text-book  of  Geology,"  p.  164. 


GEOLOGICAL   OCCURRENCE   OF  MARBLE.     9 

has  crystallised  on  cooling,  and  sometimes  split  up  into 
fragments  by  the  pressure  incidental  to  mountain  making, 
and  recemented  by  the  infiltrations  of  calcite  and  metallic 
oxides.  Breccias  may  be  either  calcareous,  dolomitic,  or 
serperitinous,  or  a  combination  of  all  three.  They  are 
of  various  ages  and  formations. 

Serpentines  are  derived  from  older  formations,  some- 
times of  igneous  rocks,  sometimes  of  magnesian  limestones, 
all  of  which  have  been  entirely  altered  by  chemical  and 
physical  action.  They  occur  in  all  periods  from  Permian 
to  Quaternary,  and  have  at  times  a  distinctly  brecciated 
formation  (see  Verde  Antico,  p.  220). 

The  term  "  marble,"  from  a  commercial  standpoint, 
may  be  taken  as  including  limestones,  magnesian  lime- 
stones, and  dolomites,  onyx  or  travertines,  serpentine, 
and  alabaster — in  short,  all  varieties  of  these  stones 
capable  of  taking  and  retaining  a  polished  face,  and  that 
are  available  for  decorative  purposes.  In  addition  to 
these,  there  are  various  stones  available  for  use  for  special 
purposes.  Silicious  pebbles,  porphory,  jasper,  fluor  spar 
(blue-John),  lapis  lazuli,  sodalite,  etc.,  are  all  of  them 
used  to  some  extent  for  decorative  purposes,  and  come 
within  the  marble- worker's  category. 

The  characteristics  of  marble  vary  to  such  an  extent 
that  classification,  either  on  geological  or  chemical  lines, 
would  be  practically  impossible.  All  marbles,  however, 
are  possessed  of  features  so  pronounced  as  to  admit  of  a 
division  into  easily  recognised  groups.  These  groups  are 
ten  in  number  :— 

1.  Saccharoidal. — This  description  applies  to 
marbles  that  are  even  in  grain  and  that  present  a  sugary 
appearance  on  fracture.  In  this  class  are  included  the 


10         MARBLE  AND  MARBLE  WORKING. 

finest  statuary,  the  Italian  white  marbles  known  as 
Sicilian,  Pentelikon,  and  the  white  marbles  of  Norway, 
Spain,  and  the  United  States  of  America.  The  least 
impure  of  these  is  statuary  marble,  the  hardest-wearing 
is  a  variety  of  Sicilian  having  a  bluish  tinge.  A  dis- 
tinctive feature  of  saccharoidal  marbles  is  that  the 


FIG.  2. 


SACCHAEOIDAL  MARBLE. 
THE  LOUNGE,  HOTEL  MAJESTIC,  .HABEOGATE. 

The  Wall  Lining  is  worked  in  Sicilian  (Saccharoidal),  with  Griotte  de  Sost 
(Variegated)  Bands,  and  Breche  Violette  (Brecciated)  Pilasters. 

/" 

crystallisation  is  so  regular  that  slabs  can  readily  be 
coped  to  sizes  required  with  hammer  and  chisel,  other 
marbles  requiring  to  be  sawn.  Saccharoidal  marbles  are 
very  sound,  and,  when  well  selected,  are  available  for 
use  for  exterior  work  as  well  as  for  the  decoration  of 
interiors. 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  MARBLES.  11 

2.  Unicoloured. — This  description  applies  to  marbles 
without    veinings    or    prominent    markings,    the    colour 
tone  being  even    throughout.      The  best-known  varieties 
are  Hopton-Wood  (England),  Comblanchien   and  Echaillon 
(France),    Dove   and    Mazzano   (Italy),   Black   (Belgium, 
etc.),    Blue    Pentelikon    (Greece),    and     Blue    Vermont 
(U.S.A.).        Uuicoloured    marbles     are    most    of    them 
sound,  are  obtainable   in    large   sizes,  and  are   possessed 
of  good  weathering  qualities.     They  are  extensively  used 
in  conjunction  with  Sicilian  marble  for  floors,  and  several 
of  them  may,  when  carefully  selected,  be  used  for  building 
purposes. 

3.  Variegated. — This  description  applies  to  marbles 
in    which    patches    and    veinings    of  various    colours    are 
irregularly  distributed.     The  veinings  being  in  the  majority 
of  cases  the  result  of  the  infiltration  of  metallic  oxides  and 
sulphides,  a  number  of  these  varieties,  when  cut  into  slabs, 
are  liable  to  fracture,  the  source  of  their  beauty  being  a 
cause  of  weakness.     Many  of  the  red  marbles  in  this  class 
are    "  clayey  "    on    the   lines   of    veining.       This   defect 
necessitates   the  "  raking  out "    of  the    defective  portion 
and  stopping  with  an  artificial  composition.     Variegated 
marbles  are  found  in  all  of  the  marble-producing  countries. 
They  are  seldom  suitable  for  other  than  purposes  of  interior 
decoration,  and  are  seen  to  best  advantage  when  used  as 
linings  to  walls. 

4.  Fossiliferous. — This  description  applies  to  marbles 
containing   fossil   remains    of  various   kinds.     These   are 
among    the    oldest   of   the   rock   formations   from   which 
marbles   are   secured,  and  the   changes  that   have  taken 
place  in  their  construction  have  had  a  tendency  to  make 
certain  of  them  unsound.     This  is  particularly  the  case 


12         MARBLE  AND  MARBLE  WORKING. 

with  several  of  the  red  varieties,  which  are  liable  to 
exfoliation  on  exposure.  The  various  shades  of  grey  are 
closer  in  texture,  and  will  resist  atmospheric  influences  to 

FIG.  3. 


VAKIEGATED   MARBLE. 

THE  GRAND  STAIRCASE,  HOTEL  RUSSELL,  W.C. 

The  Columns  and  Architraves   are    of    Campan   Vert,    the 

Pilasters  and  Handrail  of  Ros6  du  Var,  on  Griotte  de  Sost 

Pedestals,  the  Balustrading  being    of  Siena,  with  Ros6  du 

Var  Base,  and  Sicilian  (margins)  Treads  and  Risers. 

a  greater  extent  than  will  the  reds.  Fossiliferous  marbles 
are  mainly  found  in  Great  Britain,  Belgium,  Brittany,  and 
the  north  of  France.  Many  of  them  are  very  beautiful, 


CLASSIFICATION   OF  MAEBLES.  13 

and  will  take  a  high  polish,  but  the  greatest  care  must  be 
exercised  in  their  selection  if  durable  results  are  to  be 
secured. 

5.  Crinoidal. — This   description    applies   to   marbles 
made  up  of  fossilised  shell  fragments.     In  some  cases  the 
shell  formation  is  retained  entire,  in  others  it  has  been 
replaced  by  calcite  crystals.     Crinoidal  marbles  are  fairly 
sound,  but  owing  to  the  varying  nature  of  the  cementing 
medium,  few  of  them  are  suited  for  use  in  exposed  positions. 
Some  of  the  crinoidal  marbles  are  bituminous  in  character, 
this    quality  being    derived  from    decomposed    animal  or 
vegetable   matter    present   in    the   formation.       This    is 
apparent  by  the  odour  given  off  on  fracture,  also  when 
tooling  the  material.     Belgian  "  Granit,"  certain  varieties 
of  Bleu  Beige,  and  some  of  the  Derbyshire  varieties,  are 
subject  to  this  peculiarity,  which  results  in   the  surface 
becoming    dulled,    and   presenting  a    greyish    appearance 
under  the  polished    face    when  used   for    exterior    work. 
Crinoidal  marbles  are  extensively  distributed,  and  are  in 
greater  demand  for  Continental  work  than  is  the  case  in 
this  country. 

6.  Brecciated. — This  description  applies  to  marbles 
made   up  of  angular  fragments   of   limestone  of  various 
colours,  such  fragments  being  pieces  of  older  rocks  crushed 
by  physical  agencies,  and  recemented  into  solid  rock  by  the 
infiltration  of  lime  and  metallic  oxides,   or  imbedded  in 
a  marble   magma  in  process  of  cooling  down.     Some  of 
the  brecciated  marbles  are  of  great  beauty.      They  are 
principally  obtained  from  Italy  and  the  French  Pyrenees, 
and  are  extensively  used  in  Great  Britain,  both  for  wall 
linings,  etc.,  and  in  columnar  form.     Breccias  are  mostly 
sound,  and  are  obtainable  in  large  sizes.     Pudding-stones 


14         MAEBLE  AND  MARBLE  WORKING. 

are  of  similar  formation  to  breccias,  but  the  fragments 
have  been  rounded,  probably  by  the  action  of  water  prior 
to  their  recementation.  Owing  to  their  formation,  the 

FIG.  4. 


BKECCIATED  MARBLE. 
THE  GEAND  CHIMNEY-PIECE,  HOTEL  RUSSELL,  W.C. 

The  Breast,   etc.,  is  of   Br6che  Violette   (Brecciated),  with 

Statuary  Panel  and   Trusses,  the  Moulded  Frieze  being  of 

Campan  Melange,  and  Cornice  of  Ros<§  du  Var. 

pieces  of  which  they  are  composed  are  apt  to  break  loose 
from  the  magma  in  which  they  are  embedded.  Pudding- 
stones  are  not  used  to  any  large  extent  in  this  country. 


CLASSIFICATION   OF  MAKBLES.  15 


FIG.  5. 


LAMINATED  MARBLE. 

UNDEB  THE  DOME,  NEW  SESSIONS  HOUSE,  E.G. 

The  Architraves,  Niches,  and  Friezes,  etc.,  are  of  Greek  Cippolino  (Laminated), 
with  Pavonazzo  (Variegated)  Panels  and  Spandrel  Fillings. 


16         MARBLE  AND  MARBLE  WORKING. 

7.  Laminated. — This  description  applies  to  marbles 
the  veining  of  which  is  more  or  less  regular,  the  formation 
of   the   marble   in    its   bed  being  indicated  by  bands   of 
differing  colour.      The  varieties  of   Cippolino   belong    to 
this  class.     The  best  of  these  are  obtained  from  Greece, 
other  varieties    are    quarried   in    Switzerland    and    Italy. 
Laminated  marbles  are  best  displayed  in  columnar  form, 
but  a  handsome  effect  is  secured  by  using  slabs  cut  with 
the  bed  as  panelling  for  large  surfaces,   also  for  heavy 
mouldings  of  plain  section.     The  use  of  laminated  marbles 
for  decorative  work  is  general  throughout  Europe. 

8.  Travertines. — This    description    applies    to    the 
varieties  known  as  onyx  marbles.     Travertines  have,  when 
polished,  a  hard,  glassy  face,  and  are  in  many  cases  almost 
transparent.     Some  of  the  brighter-coloured  varieties  have 
what    is    known   as    "  water   veins,"    along   which    they 
fracture  when  given  a  slight  tap.     The  best  varieties  are 
obtained  from  Brazil,  Mexico,  and  Arizona,  U.S.A.,  others 
from  Algeria  and  Italy.     The  term  "  onyx,"  as  applied  to 
this  class  of  marble,  is  a  misnomer,  true  onyx  being  a 
variety  of  chalcedony  (Si02).     Travertines  are  in  consider- 
able  demand  for  decorative  purposes.      They   should  be 
used  sparingly,  and  are  displayed  to  greatest  advantage  in 
conjunction  with  marbles  of  a  complementary  colour,  but 
of  less  brilliancy.     Stalagmitic  and  stalactitic  formations 
are  also  known  as  onyx  marble. 

9.  Serpentinous. — This      description      applies      to 
marbles    composed    wholly    or    mainly    of    the    mineral 
serpentine,   and   includes   most  of  the  varieties  of   dark 
green    marbles.       The     principal    supplies    are    obtained 
from  Italy,  the  French  Alps,  Greece  (Larissa  and  Tinos), 
and    Ireland    (Connemara).       Serpentinous    marbles    are 


CLASSIFICATION   OF   MAEBLEB.  17 

extensively  used  for  decorative  purposes,  both  for  columnar 
and  facing  work.  They  are  sound  in  texture,  and  several 
of  them  can  be  procured  in  large  sizes. 

10.  Alabaster.* — This  is  the  softest  of  all  the  stones 
used  for  decorative  purposes.  When  carefully  selected, 
it  makes  an  effective  wall  decoration,  either  alone  or  in 
combination  with  other  marbles.  Alabaster  is  quarried 
extensively  in  England  (principally  in  Staffordshire  and 
Derbyshire),  France,  Germany,  and  Italy.  The  clear 
Italian  variety  is  often  substituted  for  statuary  marble  for 
low-priced  carved  ornaments  (see  pp.  74-5). 


*  Alabaster  is  not,  strictly  speaking,  a  marble,  but  is  included  on 
account  of  its  extensive  use,  both  for  decorative  purposes  and,  after 
preparation,  as  a  cheap  substitute  for  Carrara  statuary.  It  can  be 
distinguished  from  the  latter  by  its  greater  softness,  being  readily 
scratched  by  any  hard  substance. 

C 


18 


CHAPTER   II. 

Antiquity  of  the  Marble  Industry — Ancient  Quanies  and  Methods 
of   Working. 

THE  quarrying  and  working  of  marble  are  among  the 
earliest  of  the  building  and  decorative  crafts.  While 
from  the  nature  of  the  material  but  little  remains  of  the 
work  of  remote  ages,  records  are  not  lacking  of  its  use 
in  practically  all  the  periods  of  the  world's  civilisation. 
Herodotus  describes  the  Great  Pyramid  of  Ghizeh  as 
being  cased  with  polished  marble,  which  gave  to  the 
great  pile  an  appearance  of  dazzling  brightness.  "  Marble 
stones  in  abundance"  is  mentioned  (1  Chron.  xxix.  2), 
circa  E.G.  1015,  as  included  in  the  preparations  made  by 
David  for  the  building  of  the  Temple  at  Jerusalem.  In 
the  Vulgate  and  Septuagint  versions  of  the  Bible,  it  is 
stated  that  Parian  marble  was  secured  by  David  for  the 
building  of  the  Temple.  If  this  is  a  correct  rendering  of 
the  text,  it  proves  that  this  marble  was  well  known  over 
a  thousand  years  before  the  Christian  Era.  Josephus  has 
placed  it  on  record  (Book  viii.,  Sec.  3)  that  the  body  of 
the  temple  was  built  of  white  stone  or  marble,  the  cloisters 
being  of  native  stone,  all  worked  prior  to  being  brought 
on  the  site,  and  fixed  without  sound  of  hammer.  Mention 
is  also  made  in  the  Book  of  Esther  (Esther  i.  6),  circa 
B.C.  519,  of  "hangings  ....  fastened  to  silver  rings  arid 
pillars  of  marble,"  and  of  "  a  pavement  of  red,  and  blue, 
and  white,  and  black  marble  "  in  the  palace  of  Shushan, 
the  abode  of  King  Ahasuerus.  (The  marginal  notes  to 


MARBLE  AS   A   RECORD   OF   HISTORY.      19 

the  latter  quotation  give  an  alternative  reading  of  "  por- 
phorie,  and  alabaster,  and  stone  of  blue  colour.") 

Marble  was  the  medium  for  the  greatest  height  of 
artistic  expression,  whether  for  sculpture  or  architecture, 
in  ancient  Greece.  The  buildings  that  yet  remain  at 
Athens,  although  in  ruins — the  Parthenon,  the  Erectheium, 
Propylsea,  Theseium,  Olympieium,  etc.,  not  to  mention  the 
rains  at  Antioch,  Ephesus,  Miletus,  Epidaurus,  Bassse,  etc.— 
are  instances  of  the  expression  of  the  highest  artistic 
feeling,  executed  in  the  noblest  of  materials.  Indeed,  it 
is  no  exaggeration  to  state,  that  but  for  the  lasting  nature 
of  the  medium  employed,  the  most  magnificent  concep- 
tions, both  in  architecture  and  sculpture,  would  have  been 
lost  to  the  world.  When  it  is  remembered  that  the 
elevations  of  our  noblest  buildings  are  based  on  classic 
examples  executed  in  marble  (the  only  medium  in  which 
such  preservation  as  has  obtained  was  possible),  the  debt 
of  modernity  both  to  the  medium  and  the  workers  therein 
of  ancient  times  is  indeed  a  heavy  one.  Nor  is  this  the 
whole  of  the  debt.  Mr.  W.  Brindley  has  pointed  out  that 
the  imperishable  nature  of  the  material  has  enabled 
records  to  be  preserved  which  throw  light  on  the  history 
and  civilisation  of  bygone  ages.  "  Marble  slabs  are  not 
worth  stealing,  as  they  cannot  be  put  into  the  melting 
pot. "..."We  are  indebted  to  incised  marble  slabs  for 
most  of  our  early  records,  which,  had  they  been  in 
metal  plates,  would  doubtless  have  been  lost  to  us." 

The    marble    for    sculptured    work    was    principally 
obtained  from  Mount  Marpressa,  near  the  centre  of  the 


*  Mr.  W.  Brindley  :    Transactions  of  Royal  Institute  of  British 
Architects,  New  Series,  Vol.  III.,  p.  53. 

c  2 


20         MAKBLE   AND   MARBLE   WORKING. 

island  of  Paros,  in  the  ^Egean  Sea,  and  from  thence  the 
variety  of  Parian  marble  known  as  Lychnites  (from  its 
being  quarried  in  the  dark,  i.e.,  underground)  was 
obtained.  The  Venus  of  Milo,  the  Venus  de  Medicis,  and 
the  Capitoline  Venus  are  stated  to  be  worked  in  this  marble, 
as  are  the  Apollo  Belvedere  and  other  world-famed  examples 
of  Grecian  art.  Marble  for  building  purposes,  also  a 
selected  variety  for  use  for  sculptured  work,  was  obtained 
from  Mount  Pentelicus,  some  nine  miles  north-east  of 
Athens.  The  deposits  are  of  great  ex  tent ,  and  have  been 
reopened  and  developed  during  recent  years  on  modern 
lines  (see  pp.  86-7). 

The  quarries  of  Luna,  now  Carrara  (from  the  Latin 
quarr arise,  whence  our  English  word  quarry),  were  first 
worked  by  the  Romans  about  B.C.  173.  Marble  had 
previously  come  into  considerable  demand,  as  the  result 
of  the  spoils  of  the  Macedonian  war  being  brought  home 
to  Rome  by  the  conquerors;  and  the  discovery  of  a 
practically  inexhaustible  supply  of  the  material  within 
easy  distance  of  Imperial  Rome  caused  it  to  be  extensively 
employed  in  the  rebuilding  of  the  city  under  the  Emperor 
Augustus.  Greek  marble  was  also  imported  to  a  consider- 
able extent,  as  is  shown  by  the  quantity  of  the  material 
found  in  ancient  Roman  buildings.  This  is  known  to  the 
Italian  workmen  as  Marmo  Grseco  Fino. 

While  mention  is  often  made  of  Gibbon's  statement 
respecting  the  Emperor  Augustus,  that  "he  found  his  capital 
of  brick,  but  left  it  of  marble,"  it  is  generally  assumed  that 
the  Carrara  variety,  with  some  amount  of  imported  Greek 
Pentelikon,  were  the  only  marbles  used.  This  is  not 
correct.  Sir  Edward  Hull  tells  us  that  the  Emperor 
Augustus  selected  Travertine,  quarried  at  Tivoli,  and  the 


ANCIENT   MARBLES.  21 

product  of  the  Luna  quarries  for  the  numerous  buildings 
and  restorations  effected  under  his  auspices,  and  that  part 
of  the  Arch  of  the  Cloaca  Maxima  and  the  entire  exterior 
of  the  Colosseum,  founded  by  Vespasian  in  the  middle  of 
the  first  century,  were  erected  from  the  former ;  and  that 
it  was  from  this  building  (the  Colosseum)  that  the  stones 
for  building  the  Palace  of  St.  Mark's,  Venice,  the 
Cancellaria,  and  the  Palazzo  Farnese,  were  obtained  at 
a  later  date.*  The  material,  a  straw-coloured  onyx 
marble,  has  been  in  use  right  through  the  centuries  that 
have  since  elapsed.  It  is  employed  for  the  external  walls 
of  nearly  all  the  churches  of  Rome,  including  St.  Peter's, 
the  Museum  and  Church  of  the  Lateran,  the  Castle  of 
Saint  Angelo,  and  portions  of  the  city  walls,  and  is  in 
employment  to  this  day. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  competition  of 
bygone  days  between  the  principal  marble-producing 
centres  is  being  actively  revived,  and  that  although  the 
Tivoli  product  has  not  attained  the  dignity  of  a  leading 
article  of  export,  the  claims  of  Pentelikon  marble  over 
the  Carrara  variety  are  being  vigorously  urged. 

Other  deposits  known  to  the  ancients  were  the  Cippolino 
marbles  of  Eubcea,  Rosso  Antico  of  Laconia  and  Damaris- 
tica,  and  Verde  Antico  of  Thessaly,  all  of  which  have 
been  rediscovered  of  recent  years,  and  are  now  in 
extensive  use.  Mention  may  also  be  made  of  the  deposits 
in  Tunisia  and  Algeria,  from  which  districts  the  ancient 
Numidian  marbles  (Marmor  Numidicum)  were  obtained. 
In  fact,  it  has  been  stated  by  Mr.  W.  Brindley  that  of  the 


*  See   Hull's   "  Treatise  on    Building   and    Ornamental    Stones," 
1872,  p.  280. 


22 


MARBLE  AND  MARBLE  WORKING. 


forty-two  marbles  known  to  the  ancient  Romans,  all  but 
two  have  been  located,  and  are  available  if  required  for 
present-day  use. 

The  methods  adopted  for  the  extraction  of  stone  by 
the   ancients  are  in  many  cases  traceable   from  the  old 

FIG.  6. 


ANCIENT  MARBLE  QUARRY,  SKYROS,  GRECIAN  ARCHIPELAGO. 

workings.  Several  of  the  ancient  quarries  on  Mount 
Pentelicus  are  preserved  for  archaeological  reasons,  and 
from  these  it  is  apparent  that  although  the  dip  of  the 
quarry  inclined  inwards  from  the  working  face,  the  blocks 
were  removed  by  wedging  on  a  horizontal  plane,  a 


PLATE  I. 


,- 


, 


SKYROS     Xo.    1-2    (GRECIAN     ARCHIPELAGO). 


[To  face  p.  22. 


MARBLE  WORKING   IN   OLDEN   TIMES.      23 

perpendicular  face  having  first  been  chiselled.  Roughly 
squared  blocks  to  required  dimensions  were  thus  easily 
secured.  There  are  a  number  of  micaceous  seams  in  this 
formation  running  with  the  bed,  and,  from  the  method 
of  extraction  adopted,  these  traversed  the  blocks  in  a 
slanting  direction.  As  the  weather-resisting  properties  of 
the  seams  are  much  lower  than  that  of  the  marble,  some 
disintegration  on  the  lines  of  the  seams,  apparent  in  many 
of  the  ancient  buildings,  occurred.  In  the  modern 
workings  of  the  Pentelic  deposits,  this  defect  has  been 
remedied,  the  extraction  of  blocks  now  following  the  dip 
of  the  formation.  The  mica  seams  are  fairly  regular  in 
their  distribution,  and  where  they  are  so  pronounced  as  to 
probably  interfere  with  the  durability  of  the  marble,  are 
avoided. 

Mention  is  made  by  Mr.  Arthur  Lee*  that  in  the 
ancient  workings  in  Algeria  blocks  of  marble  have  been 
found  actually  extracted,  and  others  with  grooves  and 
wedge  holes  ready  to  be  raised.  The  jvedges  used  were 
ordinarily  of  wood,  and  were  driven  into  prepared  holes 
and  repeatedly  moistened,  the  resultant  swelling  having 
the  effect  of  bursting  the  marble  from  its  bed.,  Jn__some 
instances,  bronze  wedges^ares opposed  to  havejjeen  used. 

An  interesting  method  in  force  for  the  quarrying  of 
columns,  ensuring  that  the  marble  when  in  situ  should 
occupy  the  same  relative  position  in  the  building  as  in  the 
quarry,  is  described  by  Mr.  W.  Brindley  in  his  account  of 
the  workings  at  the  ancient  Verde  Antico  quarries  near 
Larissa,  Thessaly,  rediscovered  by  him  in  1889.  He 
states :  "  One  large  quarry  face  consists  of  a  series  of 
vertical,  almost  semi-circular  hollows,  of  varying  large 

*  «  Marble  and  Marble  Workers,"  1887,  p.  90. 


24         MARBLE  AND   MARBLE   WORKING. 

diameter ;  a  mass  in  front  of  this  shows  smaller  hollows — 
here,  no  doubt,  were  extracted  the  monolith  columns  of 
St.  Sophia,  Constantinople,  the  rough  columnar  form  being 
rounded  as  quarried — these  hollows  being  the  matrices 
allowing  room  for  the  workman  to  axe  round  the  columns, 
less  at  the  back  and  more  at  the  sides,  where  the  quarry- 
man  would  stand  to  work.  The  shafts  would  thus  be 
produced  standing  free  from  the  rock ;  they  would  then 
be  severed  at  the  base  and  lowered  over  by  ropes  and 
wedges,  while  the  projection  between  the  hollows  would 
produce  the  next  row  of  shafts."  .  .  .  "  Another  quarry 
contains  a  block  of  large  dimensions  squared  up  for  a 
sarcophagus.  This  is  still  attached  by  the  bottom  bed  to 
the  solid  rock,  a  passage  being  cut  all  round  it.  This  block 
would  make  a  sarcophagus  similar  to  the  three  famous 
ones  in  Constantinople,  one  of  which  is  in  front  of  the 
Pantocrator  Church,  the  other  two  near  the  Seraglio.  Two 
or  three  of  the  workings  have  sawn  faces,  and  sawn  blocks 
and  scantlings  for  slabs  have  the  saw- cuts  remaining  below 
where  they  were  wedged  off.  Everything  seen  in  their 
methods  of  working  points  to  the  minimising  of  weight  for 
transit."* 

Another  method  adopted  in  early  days  was  a  com- 
bination of  the  principles  of  jigat  am]  strain.  Fires  lighted 
along  a  previously  marked  line  would,  after  attaining  a 
certain  heat,  be  quenched  simultaneously,  the  contraction 
occasioned  by  the  sudden  cooling  causing  rifts  to  occur  in 
the  formation.  These  were  further  widened  by  means  of 
wedges  arid  levers,  until  masses  of  stone  became  detached. 
This  method  is  in  force  in  India  for  the  extraction  of 
granite  to  the  present  day. 

*  Transactions  of  R.I.B.A.,  Series  III.,  Vol.  III.,  pp.  267-8. 


25 


CHAPTER   III. 

Modern  Quarries  and  Quarrying  Methods— Machinery  Used  in  Quarrying — 
European  and  American  Systems  Compared. 

THE  quarries  from  which  the  marble  used  in  the  United 
Kingdom  are  supplied  are  situate  in  nearly  every  country 
in  Europe.  Of  these,  Italy  is  an  easy  first,  followed  by 
France,  Belgium,  and  Greece.  Portugal,  Sweden,  Austria, 
Spain,  Switzerland,  and  Germany  are  all  of  them  producers 
for  the  English  market,  but  to  a  smaller  extent  than  the 
first  four  named.  A  considerable  amount,  too,  conies  from 
North  Africa  (Tunisia  and  Algeria),  from  the  district 
whence  the  Marmor  Numidica  of  the  Romans  was  obtained, 
and  smaller  quantities  from  the  United  States  of  America, 
Mexico,  and  Brazil.  The  importations  from  the  two  latter 
countries  mainly  consist  of  onyx  marbles.  A  number  of 
marbles  are  quarried  in  the  British  Isles,  principally  in 
Devonshire,  Derbyshire,  Cumberland,  the  Western  Hebrides, 
and  the  south  and  west  of  Ireland. 

The  methods  in  force  for  the  extraction  of  blocks  vary 
to  a  considerable  extent,  some  of  them  being  very  primi- 
tive in  their  nature.  In  a  few  districts  explosives  are  used 
to  extract  the  rock.  This  method  is  far  from  economical. 
It  not  only  results  in  a  large  amount  of  waste  being 
made,  but,  where  employed  for  comparatively  small  blocks, 
has  a  tendency  to  disintegrate  the  stone,  causing  it  to 
fall  to  pieces  when  sawn  into  slabs.  The  writer  has  in 
mind  a  Devonshire  marble  of  good  appearance.  The 
quarry  is  worked  for  limestone,  which  is  principally  used 


26         MARBLE  AND   MARBLE   WORKING. 

as  road  metal,  but  when  a  large  block  comes  out,  it  is 
reserved  for  sale  as  marble.  The  use  of  explosives  facili- 
tates the  breaking  up  of  the  stone  for  the  main  purposes 
for  which  it  is  used,  but  has  a  bad  effect  upon  the  large 
blocks.  The  result  is  that  although  the  material  is  to  all 
appearance  a  compact  stone  in  the  quarry,  its  reputation 
among  marble  workers  is  that  of  being  very  unsound.  It 
may  be  taken,  as  a  general  rule,  that  with  the  possible 
exception  of  black  marble,  the  use  of  explosives  should  not 
be  resorted  to  for  the  extraction  of  blocks  for  use  as  marble, 
provided  that  other  means  of  quarrying  are  available. 

Where  the  more  modern  appliances  are  in  use,  the 
system  adopted  varies,  sometimes  in  accordance  with  the 
formation  of  the  deposit,  but  more  often  on  account  of  the 
individual  experience  of  the  quarry  manager  as  to  appli- 
ances in  use.  Thus,  a  man  who  has  been  accustomed  to 
extraction  by  a  particular  method  will  develop  a  property 
of  which  he  has  charge  by  the  system  he  knows  best.  He 
will  not  introduce  one  with  which  he  is  unfamiliar, 
although  it  may  be  better  suited  to  the  formation  he  is 
exploiting.  Quarry  owners  and  managers  are  most  con- 
servative in  their  methods,  the  result  being  that  the  best 
means  of  extracting  merchantable  material  are  not  always 
adopted.  It  is  not  an  uncommon  event  for  a  marble 
property  to  be  worked  for  a  time  by  "  rule  of  thumb " 
methods,  the  result  being  a  choking  up  of  merchantable 
rock  with  waste,  and  ultimately  making  the  further  working 
of  the  property  unprofitable. 

The  methods  adopted  generally  for  the  quarrying  of 
marble  are  three  in  number — wedging,  sawing,  and  chan- 
nelling. Each  method  has  points  distinctly  its  own,  and 
it  is  advisable  for  them  to  be  separately  described. 


METHODS   OF   EXTRACTION— WEDGING.     27 

Wedging. — This  method  of  extraction  is  the  oldest, 
as  well  as  the  simplest,  of  any  existing.  No  machinery  of 
any  kind  is  required,  the  marble  being  forced  from  its  bed 
in  the  quarry  by  the  action^of  steel  wedges  driven  either 
between  the  veins  or  in  rifts  nTthe  Formation.  The  mode 


FIG.  7. 


WEDGING: — TROU  DE  VERSAILLES,  KANCE,  BELGIUM. 
The  ledges  shown  on  the  left  are  of  seventeenth  century  workings. 

-f   /   (^       /Vo^/C^        K///<!        ij*   /      /<* 

of  procedure  is  most  wasteful.  It  seldom  happens  that 
marble  occurs  in  even  layers,  and  where  both  veining  and 
bedding  are  irregular,  the  blocks  obtained  are  of  all  pos- 
sible shapes,  and  have,  after  extraction,  to  be  broken  up 
into  the  required  sizes  and  roughly  squared.  Under 
ordinary  circumstances,  the  accumulations  of  debris  cannot 


28         MAEBLE   AND   MAKBLE   WORKING. 

be  used  to  advantage,  the  result  being  that  sooner  or 
later  the  good  beds  are  difficult  of  approach,  and  con- 
siderable amounts  of  payable  stone  are  made  inaccessible. 
Even  where  the  conditions  are  favourable  the  percentage 
of  waste  is  very  high,  and  its  reduction  by  the  adoption 
of  more  modern  methods  would  give  satisfactory  returns 
for  the  increased  expenditure  involved.  Wedging  is 
most  in  force  in  quarries  that  are  worked  on  communal 
lines,  and  those  situated  in  isolated  positions,  especially 
where  the  proper  development  of  the  deposits  is  retarded 
by  lack  of  capital.  It  is  only  suitable  for  adoption  where 
the  deposits  lie  on  or  near  the  surface. 

A  combination  of  drill  and  wedge  work  is  sometimes 
adopted  for  the  extraction  of  marble.  Two  men  are 
engaged  in  the  process  of  hand  drilling,  the  one  holding 
the  drill  or  jumper  in  position,  while  the  other  strikes  the 
c ( disengaged  end  with  a  heavy  hammer,  the  drill  being 
slightly  turned  at  each  stroke.  The  work,  both  of 
wedging  and  drilling,  is  of  a  heavy  nature,  and  calls  for 
the  exercise  of  considerable  discretion.  It  is  not  highly 
paid.  The  holes  drilled  vary  from  two- thirds  to  the  full 
depth  of  the  block  required,  and  long  metal  wedges  or 
plugs  are  inserted,  which,  on  being  tightened,  burst  the 
marble  from  its  bed.  In  some  cases  holes  to  a  depth  of 
about  5  in.  alternate  with  others  of  full  depth  of  the 
block.  Where  the  marble  deposits  are  in  comparatively 
shallow  beds,  the  shorter  holes  are  sufficient,  the  blocks 
being  broken  out  with  steel  wedges  driven  between  soft 
iron  slips  placed  on  the  lip  of  each  hole.  This  is  known 
as  plug  and  feather  work.  The  method  adopted  depends 
on  the  nature  of  the  stone,  the  lines  of  cleavage,  and  the 
general  formation. 


MACHINERY   USED   IN   QUARRYING.        29 


Machine  Drills.— The 
process  of  drilling  was 
formerly  carried  out  entirely 
by  hand,  but  machine  drills 
have  come  into  extensive  use 
during  the  last  few  years. 
The  power  used  is  usually 
either  compressed  air  or 
steam,  conveyed  through 
flexible  tubes  from  the  com- 
pressor or  generating  station 
to  the  drill.  This  consists  of 
a  valve  motion  with  a  piston 
attachment,  against  which  the 
drilling  bar  is  clamped.  The 
piston  acts  as  a  hammer,  and 
as  it  is  capable  of  striking 
from  three  to  six  hundred  blows  each  minute,  the  drilling 
bar  being  automatically  turned  at  the  same  time,  the 
advantage  gained  by  this  method  over  hand  labour  can  be 
readily  perceived. 


THE  SULLIVAN  KOCK  DRILL. 


FIG.  9. 


FIG.  9A. 


INGEBSOLL  DRILL  MOUNTED  ON 
TRIPOD. 


INGERSOLL  DRILL  MOUNTED 
ON  COLUMN. 


30         MAEBLE   AND   MAKBLE   WORKING. 


FIG.  10. 


Horizontal  drilling 
above  the  bar. 


Perpendicula 
drilling. 


Horizontal 

drilling  below 

the  bar  (workin 

close    to    the 

ground). 


THE  SULLIVAN  QUARRY  BAR,  SHOWING  ADJUSTABILITY. 


THE   QUARRY   BAR.  31 

The  machine  is  supported  on  a  weighted  tripod  for  use 
on  ledges  or  in  open  ground,  or  mounted  on  a  column  or 
shaft  bar  for  work  in  crevices  or  underground  galleries 
(see  Figs.  9  and  9 A).  The  tripod  is  easily  adjustable  for 
undercutting  as  required. 

While  the  majority  of  rock  drills  in  use  are  of 
American  manufacture,  the  progress  that  has  been  made 
in  this  direction  by  engineering  firms  in  Great  Britain 
has  been  considerable,  and  British-made  machines  of  this 
class  are  obtainable  that  for  durability  and  efficiency 
will  bear  comparison  with  any  that  are  on  the  market. 

The  Quarry  Bar. — An  implement  used  in  connection 
with  machine  drills  is  known  as  the  quarry  bar.  This 
consists  of  a  steel  bar  6  to  10  ft.  in  length,  supported  on 
four  legs,  and  on  which  the  drill  is  mounted.  For  heavy 
work  the  under  side  of  the  bar  is  fitted  with  a  rack  and 
pinion  adjustment.  The  use  of  the  quarry  bar  ensures 
that  the  holes  drilled  shall  be  in  alignment  and  at  the 
same  angle  for  the  entire  length  of  the  bar.  Drilling 
machinery  of  these  types  has  been  in  extensive  use  in 
American  marble  quarries  for  many  years,  but  so  far  as 
European  quarries  are  concerned,  it  has  only  been  during 
the  past  few  years  that  such  methods  have  been  adopted. 
Machine  drills  have  recently  been  used  in  French  and 
Belgian  quarries  with  good  results,  but  their  use  is  not 
by  any  means  general,  although  the  advantages  secured 
over  hand-drilling  processes  are  so  apparent.  The  quarry 
bar  is  sometimes  used  for  channelling  work,  a  special  bit, 
or  steel,  known  as  a  "  broacher,"  being  employed  to  break 
out  the  marble  between  the  drill  holes. 

Attempts  have  been  made  of  recent  years  to  induce 
quarry  owners  to  adopt  electrical  energy  for  the  operation 


32 


MARBLE  AND   MARBLE   WORKING. 


of  drilling  machinery.  These,  so  far  as  European  marble 
quarries  are  concerned,  have  met  with  but  a  limited 
amount  of  success.  The  method  is  claimed  to  possess 
distinct  advantages,  the  loss  of  energy  encountered  in 
the  transmission  of  power  from  the  generating  station 

FIG.  11. 


THE  WIEE  SAW  IN  OPERATION  AT  TINOS,  GREECE. 

being  stated  to  be  much   lower   than   is  the  case  either 
with  compressed  air  or  steam. 

Sawing  (The  Wire  Saw).— This  method  of  ex- 
tracting marble  has  been  in  use  for  a  little  over  twenty 
years.  The  "saw"  used  is  an  endless  wire  rope,  made  up 
of  three  strands  of  steel  twisted  together,  the  length  of  the 


FIG.  12. 


ENLARGED  PHOTO  OF  CUT  MADE  BY  WIRE  SAW,  SKYROS,  GREECE. 

D 


34         MARBLE   AND   MARBLE   WORKING. 

wire  varying  in  accordance  with  the  work  to  be  done. 
The  wire  is  passed  round  a  driving  wheel,  and  carried  on 
pulleys  from  the  engine-house  right  around  the  quarries, 
the  speed  at  which  it  travels  being  from  12  to  14  miles 
per  hour.  A  sliding  carriage  is  placed  at  a  convenient 
point  in  the  circuit,  giving  the  necessary  tautness  to  the 
wire  throughout.  The  wheel  employed  for  driving 
purposes  is  about  4  ft.  in  diameter,  this  size  having  been 
proved  by  experience  to  get  a  good  grip  on  the  wire  and 
obtain  the  best  results.  The  guiding  pulleys  are  erected 
on  movable  standards.  These  vary  in  size  according  to 
the  nature  of  the  work  they  have  to  do.  Where  the  wire 
has  to  be  carried  in  a  direct  line,  a  pulley  of  6  in.  diameter 
is  of  sufficient  size  ;  but  where  changes  of  direction  have 
to  be  made,  a  diameter  of  not  less  than  2  ft.  is  necessary, 
in  order  that  the  wire  be  not  unduly  strained. 

The  wire  saw  serves  two  purposes.  First,  it  is 
employed  for  cutting  the  stone  from  the  quarry  bed, 
and,  second,  in  sawing  the  blocks  thus  obtained  to  the 
required  dimensions.  Where  the  formation  is  suitable, 
dimension  stone  can  be  quarried  direct ;  in  other  cases, 
huge  blocks  are  extracted,  these  being  afterwards  cut 
to  size  (see  Figs.  11  and  12). 

For  cutting  large  blocks  into  merchantable  dimensions, 
the  wire  is  guided  to  the  block,  and  a  frame  erected  to 
carry  the  pulleys  over  which  the  wire  runs  in  the  required 
direction.  In  cases  where  the  amount  of  work  to  be  done 
justifies  the  outlay,  the  saws  occupy  fixed  positions,  the 
marble  being  conveyed  on  trucks  to  the  saw.  One  wire 
will  thus  be  utilised  for  the  cutting  up  of  several  blocks. 

A  method  of  employment  of  the  wire  saw  in  use  in 
Belgium  and  the  north  of  France  consists  of  sinking  holes 


THE  PENETKATING  PULLEY. 


35 


FIG.  13. 


THE  PENETRATING  PULLEY  OPERATING  AT  BERGNIORNY,  BELGIUM. 


D    2 


36         MARBLE   AND   MARBLE   WORKING. 

from  2  to  3  ft.  in  diameter  by  means  of  a  revolving 
cylinder,  the  bottom  edge  being  serrated  and,  in  some 
instances,  being  set  with  bort,  or  black  diamonds.  The 
shaft  having  been  drilled  to  the  depth  required,  the  core  is 
extracted,  standards  are  erected,  and  the  marble  cut  from 
the  rock  as  before  described  (see  Fig.  14).  The  core  from 
the  hollow  drill  is  sometimes  available  for  columnar  work. 

The  idea  of  the  wire  saw  dates  from  1854,  the  credit 
for  the  invention  belonging  to  M.  Eugene  Chevallier,  who 
on  April  8th  of  that  year  obtained  a  patent  for  the 
invention,  the  description  of  which  concludes  as  follows  : 
"  In  a  word,  I  claim  essentially,  as  basis  of  my  invention, 
the  employment,  as  sawing  instrument,  of  one  or  several 
wires  or  metal  cords  or  chains  acting  in  a  continuous  or 
alternating  rotary  motion  driven  by  hand  or  machine, 
with  the  property  of  flexibility  and  linear  reduction,  to 
bite,  at  the  same  instant,  the  block  along  all  the  imagin- 
able outlines  which  may  be  needed  for  sculpture,  statuary, 
mosaic,  and  other  artistic  and  industrial  objects." 

The  system  remained  unutilised  for  over  twenty-five 
years,  and  was  revived  by  M.  Paul  Gay  in  1880.  The 
pulleys  with  universal  joints,  enabling  the  wire  to  be 
turned  in  all  directions,  were  invented  by  M.  Michel 
Thonar,  of  Belgium,  in  1884,  together  with  a  number  of 
improvements  in  the  system,  rendering  it  of  practical 
utility. 

The  Penetrating  Pulley.— Previous  to  1898  the 
use  of  the  wire  saw  for  quarrying  was  greatly  restricted, 
as,  owing  to  the  difficulty  of  guiding  the  wire  in  a  slanting 
direction,  vertical  shafts  had  to  be  sunk  to  receive  the 
standards  carrying  the  pulleys ;  but  the  introduction  of 
the  "penetrating  pulley"  in  that  year  was  the  means 


THE  PERFORATING  DRILL. 


37 


FIG.  14. 


PERFORATING  DRILL  FOR  SINKING  HOLES  FOR  WIRE  SAW. 
Lifting  out  the  marble  core. 


38         MARBLE   AND   MARBLE   WORKING. 

of  greatly  enlarging  the  use  of  the  wire  saw  for  the 
extraction  of  stone.  The  pulley  consists  of  three  parts  :— 
(1)  The  pulley:  This  is  a  steel  disc  50cm.  (19 '6  in.)  in 
diameter  and  7  to  8mm.  ('27  to  '31  in.)  thick,  grooved 
on  its  edge  to  receive  the  wire.  On  the  central  part  of 
the  disc  and  projecting  on  each  side  is  a  boss  supporting 
a  steel  axle  25mm.  ('97  in.)  long.  (2)  The  fork:  This 
takes  the  shape  of  a  hollow  steel  bar,  64mm.  (2 '4  in.) 
in  diameter,  grooved  at  the  lower  end  to  receive  the 
pulley,  and  which  can  be  lengthened  by  a  series  of  tubes 
of  similar  diameter.  The  bottom  of  the  fork  acts  as  a 
bearing,  on  which  the  pulley  runs.  (3)  The  carriage : 
This  consists  of  a  standard  which  can  be  placed  in  position 
by  three  screws  or  guys.  The  standard  carries  a  screw 
and  drum  attachment,  by  which  an  automatic  progressive 
motion  is  given  to  the  fork  from  the  rotation  of  an 
exterior  pulley,  on  which  the  helicoidal  wire  runs.  The 
operation  of  extracting  stone  is  as  follows  : — Two  holes 
are  first  sunk  to  receive  the  fork  on  which  the  pulley 
runs.  The  holes,  6  to  7  cm.  (2*3  to  2*7  in.)  in  diameter, 
are  easily  made  by  an  ordinary  jumper  in  the  hands  of 
a  skilled  workman,  or  machine  drills  can  be  employed 
to  make  the  necessary  sinkings.  The  standards  carrying 
the  wire  having  been  placed  in  position,  and  the  wire  set 
in  motion,  the  penetrating  pulley  is  brought  close  to  the 
rock.  The  thickness  of  the  pulley  being  slightly  less 
than  the  diameter  of  the  wire,  the  latter,  projecting  from 
the  edge  of  the  pulley,  wears  into  and  bites  the  rock, 
forming  a  groove  into  which  the  pulley  enters 
(see  Fig.  13).  Sand  and  water  are  fed  to  the  descending 
wire,  and  the  fork  supporting  the  pulleys  following 
the  hole  made  to  receive  it,  the  wire  is  carried 


THE   WABDWELL   CHANNELLEE, 


39 


FIG.  15. 


THE  WABDWELL  CHANNELLER  OPERATING  BY  ELECTRICITY 
AT  PROCTOR,  VERMONT,  U.S.A. 


40         MARBLE  AND   MARBLE   WORKING. 

through  the  ground  from  one  standard  to  the  other, 
making  a  cut  in  the  direction  required.  Cross-cuts  are 
obtained  by  altering  the  position  of  the  standards.  Cuts 
can  be  made  along  a  length  of  10  to  15  metres  (10 '9  to 
16*3  yds.),  and  for  an  equal  depth,  the  progress  of 
the  cut  being  from  4  to  15  cm.  (1*56  to  5  in.)  per  hour, 
this  depending  on  the  nature  of  the  material  and  the 
length  of  the  cut. 

The  penetrating  pulley  was  first  used  at  the  Campanile 
Quarry,  Carrara,  in  March,  1898,  the  owner  of  the  quarry, 
Signor  Alfredo  Corsi,  purchasing  the  pulley  forthwith, 
with  the  right  of  reproduction.  The  pulley  is  manu- 
factured, by  arrangement  with  the  owner,  by  MM.  Thonar 
Dejaiffe  et  Cie.,  of  Namur,  Belgium.  The  method  of 
extracting  marble  by  means  of  the  wire  saw  is  largely 
used  in  France,  Italy,  and  Belgium,  and  almost  exclusively 
used  in  the  Greek  quarries  owned  and  controlled  by 
Marmor  Limited.  The  system  is  not  looked  upon  with 
favour  by  American  quarry  owners,  nor,  with  the  exception 
of  a  single  installation  in  occasional  operation  at 
Connemara,  is  it  in  use  in  this  country. 

Channelling. — Whilst  this  method  of  extraction  is 
but  little  known  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Atlantic,  it  is 
the  most  extensive  in  use  throughout  the  United  States  of 
America.  There  are  several  types  of  channellers  on  the 
market,  the  manufacturers  of  each  type  claiming  to 
produce  the  best  machine  in  existence.  For  a  detailed 
description  of  particular  machines,  the  reader  is  referred 
to  the  catalogues  issued  by  their  respective  manu- 
facturers. It  may  be  generally  stated,  however,  that  the 
productions  of  the  Sullivan  Machinery  Company,  of 
Chicago,  are  in  most  extended  use  on  the  principal  marble 


THE   INGERSOLL   CHANNELLER. 


41 


fields  of  the  United   States  ;   and,   while   other   types  of 
channellers    have    attained    considerable    success   in    the 


FIG.  16. 


THE  INGERSOLL  TRACK  CHANNELLER. 


various  mediums  in  which  they  have  worked,  the 
supremacy  of  the  Sullivan  machines  in  the  marble 
industry  of  America  has  been  amply  demonstrated.  The 


42         MAEBLE   AND   MARBLE   WORKING. 

productions  of  the  Ingersoll-Sergeant  Drill  Company,  of 
New  York,  are  also  in  considerable  use,  both  in  America 
and,  to  a  lesser  extent,  in  Belgium,  and  the  Wardwell 
Channellers,  manufactured  by  the  Steam  Stone-cutter 
Company,  of  Rutland,  Vermont,  are  well  known  on  both 
sides  of  the  Atlantic  (see  Figs.  15,  16,  17). 

Before  commencing  quarrying,  a  level  floor  is  cleared, 
on  which  the  channelling  machine  can  operate.  The 
machine  usually  consists  of  a  vertical  boiler  mounted  on  a 
heavy  carriage,  which  runs  on  a  railed  track.  The  types 
of  machinery  vary  somewhat,  but  the  working  principle 
in  all  of  them  is  that  of  a  cylinder,  with  valve  and  piston 
attachment,  actuating,  either  directly  or  by  means  of 
levers,  a  gang  of  cutters  fixed  on  the  side  of  the  machine, 
and  giving  them  a  sharp,  percussive  motion.  The  cutters 
strike  the  rock  at  a  rapid  rate,  and  the  machine  being  at 
the  same  time  propelled  in  a  forward  direction,  a  channel 
is  sunk  in  the  floor  or  ledge  of  the  quarry  on  which  the 
machine  is  travelling  to  the  depth  desired.  Some  of  the 
machines  are  built  to  allow  of  a  gang  of  cutters  to  operate 
on  both  sides  at  once,  making  parallel  channels,  one  each 
side  of  the  track,  others  with  a  duplex  action,  working 
two  sets  of  steels  in  alternation  in  the  same  channel. 
Later  types  of  channellers  are  electrically  driven. 

The  work  accomplished  by  the  channelling  machine 
varies  in  accordance  with  the  nature  of  the  marble.  A 
fair  average  in  a  sound  white  marble  would  be  for  single- 
gang  machines,  100  to  120  channel  ft.  (i.e.,  the  equivalent 
of  channel  20  ft.  long  and  5  to  6  ft.  in  depth,  surfacing 
two  walls)  per  day  of  ten  hours.  The  advantages  claimed 
for  this  method  of  extraction  are  a  lessening  of  the  cost  of 
extracting  stone  and  a  considerable  reduction  in  the 


THE   SULLIVAN   CHANNELLER. 


43 


44         MAEBLE   AND   MARBLE   WORKING. 

amount  of  waste  material,  the  face  of  the  blocks  secured 
by  channelling  being  almost  as  true  as  a  sawn  face. 

The  working  heads  of  later  types  of  machines  are 
arranged  so  that  they  may  be  slung  back,  inclining  the 
steels  at  an  acute  angle,  thus  allowing  of  working  back 
into  the  rock,  and  so  enlarging  the  quarry  floor  (see 
Fig.  22).  As  the  quality  of  the  marble  in  many  of  the 
formations  improves  with  the  depth  of  the  quarry,  the 
method  of  undercutting  adopted  eliminates  the  necessity 
of  removing  a  considerable  amount  of  top  bed,  and  enables 
the  better  qualities  of  marble  to  be  obtained  at  a  minimum 
of  cost.  Where  the  dip  of  the  quarry  is  at  an  angle,  the 
rails  on  which  the  machine  runs  can  be  fitted  with  a  rack 
and  pinion  device,  so  that  the  extraction  of  blocks  may, 
if  necessary,  follow  the  line  of  the  marble  formation. 

After  a  series  of  channels  have  been  cut  in  a  quarry  floor, 
cross  channels  are  made,  the  quarry  bar,  with  machine 
drills,  being  sometimes  employed  for  this  purpose,  while 
the  channeller  is  working  elsewhere.  A  single  block  is 
then  broken  out,  and  a  machine  known  as  the  gadder  comes 
into  operation.  This  consists  of  an  upright  standard, 
mounted  on  a  low  carriage  and  adjustable  to  any  angle. 
A  machine  drill  is  attached  to  the  standard,  on  which  it 
slides  up  and  down,  and  the  drill  having  a  swivel  attach- 
ment, can  be  made  to  operate  in  any  direction.  Blocks 
are  thus  obtained  to  any  required  sizes,  and  the  gadder 
operating  right  down  to  the  base  of  the  channelled  layer, 
and,  where  necessary,  along  its  lower  edge,  the  bed  from 
whence  the  blocks  are  extracted  becomes,  in  its  turn,  the 
quarry  floor  (see  Figs.  19  and  19 A).  An  undercutting 
channeller  is  sometimes  used  to  separate  the  blocks  from 
their  bed. 


p.  45. 


MINING  FOR  MAEBLE. 

FIG.  19. 


45 


FIG. 


THE  GADDER  AT  WORK  ON  UNDERCUT  SLOPE. 

The  principal  manufacturers  of  channelling  and  gadding 
machinery  in  America  are  the  Sullivan  Machinery  Company, 
of  Chicago  ;  the  Steam  Stone-cutter  Company,  of  Rutland, 
Vermont,  whose  Wardwell  Channeller  has  been  used  to 
a  considerable  extent  in  Great  Britain  on  hard  york,  free- 
stone, and  millstone  grit  ;  and  the  Ingersoll-Sergeant 
Drill  Company,  of  New  York.  Channelling  machines  of 
light  build  are  also  made  by  the  Braniley  Engineering 
Company,  Ltd.,  of  Bramley,  near 
Leeds,  and  by  George  Anderson  & 
Co.,  Ltd.,  of  Carnoustie,  Scotland. 

Another  interesting  development 
that  has  taken  place  in  the  United 
States  of  late  years  is  the  mining, 
rather  than  quarrying,  of  marble. 
This  is  specially  prevalent  in  the 
Vermont  district,  where  a  consider- 
able amount  of  the  marble  lies 
vertically  to  the  surface,  and  at  a 

ixi          rr  r»™  r,™     TO.  THE    GADDER    CUTTING 

depth      01      from     200      to      300     It.  ANGLE  PIECES. 


46         MARBLE   AND   MARBLE  WORKING. 


QUARRY   WORKING.  47 

turns  to  a  horizontal  position.  The  method  adopted 
is  to  make  a  horizontal  cut  about  6  ft.  below  the  turn 
of  the  formation,  and  blast  down  to  it,  thus  making  a 
space  in  which  the  channelling,  etc.,  machines  can  work. 
The  tunnels  are,  in  some  instances,  carried  close  on  1,000  ft. 
from  the  face  of  the  quarry.  Walls  of  solid  marble 
are  left  to  carry  the  roof,  the  extractions  taking  the  form 
of  galleries  extending  the  entire  depth  of  the  formation. 
The  system  in  force  in  American  quarries  results  in 
the  securing  the  maximum  amount  of  marble  with  the 
minimum  of  waste,  and  permits  of  a  small  opening 
being  made  on  the  surface,  the  quarry  floor  being 
enlarged  by  the  undercutting  of  the  walls  where  the 
formation  allows,  thus  reducing  the  amount  of  overburden 
that  often  has  to  be  removed  in  order  to  extend  quarrying 
operations  ;  and  while  there  seems  no  reason  why  the 
system  should  not  be  adopted  advantageously  in  certain 
of  the  European  marble  formations,  its  application  to  the 
less  accessible  parts  of  the  Carrara  district,  for  instance- 
where  a  necessary  part  of  the  quarryman's  training  is  to 
acquire  a  coolness  of  nerve  and  agility  equal  to  that  of  a 
trained  mountaineer — would  hardly  be  practicable.  The 
fact  that  marble  is  used  to  a  large  extent  for  building 
purposes  in  the  United  States,  too,  has  some  bearing  on 
the  matter.  The  channelling  system  is  more  costly  in 
adoption  than  is  that  of  sawing  by  the  wire,  and  is  only 
economical  where  there  is  a  large  and  continuous  output^ 
A  single  channelling  machine  will  do  twice  as  much  work 
in  a  given  time  as  will  a  wire  saw,  but  requires  more  skill 
to  be  displayed  in  its  operation  than  does  the  latter  ;  the 
power  consumption,  too,  is  higher,  and  so  are  the  wages 
of  its  operator. 


48         MAEBLE  AND   MARBLE   WORKING. 


FIG.  21. 


INTERIOR  OP  A  TATE,  GEORGIA  (U.S.A.),  MARBLE  QUARRY. 

Note  the  method  of  undercutting  the  walls.     The  depth  of  the  quarry  is 

over  175  ft. 


QUAKRY  WORKING. 


49 


The  demand  for  any  particular  coloured  marble  is  of 
comparatively  small  extent,  and  with  the  possible  exception 
of  Belgian  "  Granit "  and  Rouge,  there  is  hardly  a  coloured 
marble  quarry  in  Europe  that  could  profitably  employ  an 
entire  American  equipment.  There  remain  the  white 
marbles.  The  present  appliances  are  sufficient  to  satisfy 

FIG.  22. 


UNDERCUTTING  WITH  THE  SULLIVAN  CHANNELLER. 

existing  requirements,  and  are  suited  to  the  work  they 
have  to  do.  Failing  a  new  and  extensive  demand,  it  is 
unlikely  that  new  methods  of  quarrying  will,  so  far  as 
Italy  and  Greece  are  concerned,  be  sought  after. 

It  is  worthy  of  note  that  whilst  the  wire  saw  is  in 
general  use  throughout  Europe,  it  is  not  looked  on  with 

E 


50         MARBLE  AND   MAEBLE  WORKING. 

favour  in  America  ;  and  although  its  adoption  has  been 
attempted  on  several  occasions,  the  various  concerns 
experimenting  have  reverted  to  channelling  as  being  the 
more  economical  method  of  securing  material.  A  trial  of 
the  respective  merits  of  the  competing  systems  would  be 
followed  with  great  interest  by  all  connected  with  the 
industry. 


51 


CHAPTER  IV. 

Marble  as  Building  Material. 

THE  developments  that  have  taken  place  of  recent  years 
in  the  use  of  marble  for  constructional  purposes  call  for 
more  than  a  passing  mention.  Previous  to  1898  the 
only  erections  of  this  nature  were  the  Marble  Arch,  built 
of  Italian  marble,  and  the  Junior  Constitutional  Club, 
Piccadilly,  faced  almost  entirely  with  a  pink  Norwegian 
marble.  The  Sun  Fire  and  Life  office,  facing  the  south 
side  of  Trafalgar  Square,  and  erected  in  1865,  included  a 
doorway  and  pediment  of  Sicilian,  the  window  jambs  and 
heads,  as  well  as  the  quoins  and  cornice,  being  of  the  same 
material  ;  but  apart  from  these  instances,  marble,  as  build- 
ing material,  was  conspicuous  only  by  its  absence. 

The  exploitation  on  commercial  lines  of  the  ancient 
Greek  marbles  mentioned  in  Chapter  II.*  has  had  its 
effect  on  London  architecture.  First  introduced  in  1898 
for  portions  of  the  New  York  Mutual  Assurance  Company's 
building  on  Cornhill,  E.C.,  Pentelikon  marble  took  time  to 
win  its  way  to  the  favour  of  British  architects,  who,  with 
the  conservatism  that  has  been  largely  responsible  for 
the  stability  of  our  national  work,  were  disposed  to  look 
askance  at  what  was  to  them  an  untried  material.  Some 
eight  years  elapsed  before  the  profession  could  be  persuaded 
as  to  the  suitability  of  this  marble  for  building  purposes, 
and  its  ability  to  withstand  the  ravages  of  the  London 
atmosphere,  but  eventually  one  of  the  leading  members  of 

*  See  pp.  20,  21. 


52         MARBLE  AND  MARBLE  WORKING. 


FIG.  23. 


A  PENTELIKON  DOORWAY. 
The  first  instance  in  London  of  the  use  of  Greek -Pentelikon. 


MARBLE   AS   BUILDING   MATERIAL.         53 

the  profession  was  induced  to  give  the  material  a  thorough 
trial.  The  first  building  to  be  erected  in  London  of  white 
marble  was  the  new  premises  of  Messrs.  Mappin  &  Webb, 
situated  in  Oxford  Street,  from  the  designs  and  under  the 
supervision  of  Mr.  John  Belcher.  This  was  shortly  after- 
wards followed  by  Messrs.  D.  H.  Evans's  premises  in  the 
same  street  (see  Fig.  24),  which,  when  completed,  will  be 
the  more  extensive  erection  of  the  two.  The  buildings 

o 

on  the  corner  sites  at  the  junction  of  St.  James's  Street  and 
Piccadilly  are  also  erected  in  this  material,  and,  for  the 
first  time  in  the  annals  of  British  architecture,  Greek 
marble  is  well  on  its  trial. 

Judging  from  the  first  instance  quoted,  the  material, 
after  ten  years  of  exposure,  weathers  well,  the  detail 
work  being  as  sharp  as  when  fresh  from  the  tool,  and  all 
the  characteristic  marble  features  being  retained.  With 
the  later  work,  slight  stains  have  appeared  in  the  polished 
pilasters  fronting  Messrs.  Evans's  premises.  The  quarry 
owners  are  confident  that  these  will  disappear  with  the 
passing  of  time  ;  but  opinions  are  divided  on  this  point,  and 
the  matter  of  their  permanence  or  otherwise  must  be  left 
for  the  future  to  solve.  It  is  noticeable  that  the  occurrence 
of  the  stains  is  more  prominent  in  the  parts  having  a 
polished  face  than  in  the  remainder  of  the  work  as  yet 
carried  out,  which  is  finished  with  a  dull  surface.  It  is 
within  the  writer's  personal  knowledge  that  no  acid  was 
used  in  the  polishing  of  this  portion  of  the  work,  and 
as  the  material  is  non-absorbent,  it  is  evident  that  the 
blemish,  if  such  it  be,  is  inherent  in  the  marble.  Apart 
from  this  peculiarity,  which  time  may  remedy,  Greek 
marble  appears  suitable  in  every  respect  for  use  for 
exterior  work  in  this  country.  It  is  more  compact  than 


54         MARBLE  AND  MARBLE  WORKING. 

the  Italian  varieties,  and,  when  semi-polished,  presents 
a  surface  that  is  practically  impervious  to  atmospheric 
impurities.  It  has  been  extensively  used  for  exterior 
work  in  Germany,  has  been  introduced  with  success  in 
leading  Continental  centres,  and  is  gaining  a  footing  in 
the  United  States  of  America.  An  advantage  from  the 
architect's  standpoint  is  that,  owing  to  practical  difficulties 
in  working  the  material  at  the  quarries,  the  use  of  Greek 
marble  for  masonry  work  makes  it  advisable  for  the 
material  to  be  worked  in  this  country  ;  effective  super- 
vision, both  of  material  and  workmanship,  is  thus  main- 
tained, and  a  standard  of  efficiency  secured  that  would 
hardly  be  possible  were  the  work  to  be  executed  abroad, 
as  would  probably  be  attempted  were  Italian  marble  to  be 
used.  The  nation  is  also  benefited,  inasmuch  as  the  wages 
paid  in  its  working  go  into  the  pockets  of  the  British 
workman,  and  are  spent  in  the  country.  - . 

Attempts  to  introduce  Italian  marble  for  building 
purposes  have  not  been  altogether  attended  with  success. 
The  softer  varieties  are  quite  unsuitable  for  this  purpose, 
as  may  be  seen  on  viewing  the  pilasters  on  the  front  of 
the  Tivoli,  Strand,  W.C.  It  is  sometimes  possible,  after  a 
shower  of  rain,  to  see  that  these  really  are  marble,  but 
ordinarily  this  would  not  be  discernible  to  other  .than  an 
exceedingly  cute  observer.  So  far  as  the  harder  varieties 
are  concerned,  it  is  noticeable  that  since  the  instance 
quoted  of  over  forty  years  ago,  Italian  white  marble  has 
not  been  used  for  the  exterior  of  any  important  building, 
while  the  use  of  the  Pentelic  variety  is  increasing  to  a 
considerable  extent.  This  is  possibly  due  to  the  fact  that 
the  organisation  controlling  the  latter  material  is  a  single 
one,  whereas  firms  dealing  in  Italian  marbles  are  many 


FIG.  24. 


BUILDING  ix  MARBLE. 
Messrs.  D.  H.  Evans  &  Co.'s  Premises,  Oxford  Street,  W. 


[To  face  ,p.  54. 


GREEK  v.  ITALIAN   MARBLES.  55 

and  of  divided  interests.  It  certainly  is  not  the  case  that 
Carrara  marble  is  unsuitable  for  outside  use  for  London 
buildings.  The  ordinary  quality  of  Sicilian  marble  is 
close  in  texture  and  practically  non-absorbent.  Where 
properly  selected,  it  weathers  well,  and  as  the  cost  of 
working  is  lower  than  that  of  Greek  marble,  it  should 
possess  a  distinct  advantage  over  the  latter  material. 
The  writer  recently  had  an  opportunity  of  examining  the 
exterior  of  the  building  facing  Trafalgar  Square,  already 
referred  to.  With  the  exception  of  the  moulded  bases  of 
the  chimney-stacks,  which  are  honey-combed  from  the 
drippings  of  rain-water  from  the  projecting  moulded 
course  at  the  top  of  the  stack,  no  trace  of  effervescence  or 
disintegration  was  apparent.  The  copings  and  window 
jambs  and  sills,  although  of  a  distinctly  yellow  tinge, 
were  to  all  appearance  impervious  to  atmospheric  influence, 
while  the  details  of  the  carving  and  the  arrises  on  the 
moulded  portion  of  the  work  are  as  sharp  and  as  clearly 
defined  as  freshly  moulded  terracotta.  The  building  is 
in  a  central  position,  and,  up  to  a  few  years  ago,  was, 
being  of  greater  elevation  than  the  adjoining  erections, 
fully  exposed  to  atmospherical  influences  from  all  sides. 

It  will  be  possible  in  future  years  to  make  a  comparison 
of  the  weathering  qualities  of  selected  Italian  and  Greek 
marbles  under  exposure  to  the  vagaries  of  the  London 
atmosphere.  The  masonry  of  the  Queen  Victoria  Memorial, 
facing  Buckingham  Palace  (an  instance  of  imported  worked 
marble),  is  constructed  of  the  Italian  variety,  while  the 
buildings  occupying  the  corner  sites  of  St.  James's  Street 
and  Piccadilly  are  faced  with  Greek  Pentelikon.  An  hour 
spent  in  practical  observation  is  of  greater  value  than  days 
spent  in  studying  text-books,  and  readers  desirous  of  a 


56 


MARBLE  AND  MAEBLE  WORKING. 

FIG.  25. 


MARMOCRETE:  TREATMENT  FOR  INTERNAL  ANGLES. 

full  comparison  of  the  respective  marbles  cannot  do  better 
than  examine  the  one,  take  a  short  walk  across  St.  James's 
Park,  and,  after  viewing  the  other,  form  their  own 
conclusions. 

One  of  the  later  adaptations  of  marble  for  building 
purposes  is  a  process  patented  by  Mr.  Arthur   Lee,  and 
FlG>  25A.  registered  under  the  title 

of  "  Marmocrete."  The 
process  consists  of  the 
application  of  slabs  of 
Pentelic  or  other  suitable 
marble  of  convenient 
thickness,  having  undercut 
grooves  or  channels  in  the 
backs  of  the  slabs,  as 
marble  facings  to  steel 
erections,  the  back  being 
filled  in  with  concrete  in 

MARMOCRETE  :  TREATMENT  FOR  EXTERNAL 

ANGLES.  the  usual  manner.     Blocks 


MARMOCRETE  :    A  NEW  PROCESS.  57 

of  Marmocrete  can  also  be  manufactured  for  building 
purposes,  the  casing  being  of  marble  1 J  in.  in  thickness, 
grooved  on  the  back  as  described,  and  worked  with  a 
check  angle  on  returned  faces,  the  filling  being  of  Portland 
cement  and  sand,  with  marble  chippings.  It  is  claimed 
that  the  use  of  this  process  will  make  it  possible  for  a 
marble  building  to  be  erected  at  about  the  cost  of  Portland 
stone.  The  process  is  available  as  a  facing  for  reinforced 
concrete  work  (see  Figs.  25  and  2 5 A). 

Coloured  marble  has  only  been  used  to  a  small  extent 
for  building  purposes  in  this  country.  Perhaps  the  best 
instance  of  such  use  is  the  Junior  Constitutional  Club, 
Piccadilly,  W.,  the  greater  part  of  which  is  faced  with 
Norwegian  marble.  The  material  has  weathered  well,  but 
the  experiment  made  in  its  use  has  not  been  repeated, 
possibly  on  account  of  its  cost,  the  marble  being  a  most 
difficult  one  to  work. 

Thanet  House,  Fleet  Street,  E.G.,  is  another  instance 
that  may  be  cited,  Here  the  entire  facing,  from  the 
second  floor  upwards,  is  carried  out  in  Mazzano  (Brescia) 
marble.  In  this  instance  the  surface  is  slightly  pitted 
where  exposure  to  the  weather  is  most  prevalent,  but 
appears  sound  in  other  respects,  and  where  shielded  from 
wind  and  rain,  preserves  its  polish  intact.  Where  the 
effect  of  atmospherical  influences  is  most  pronounced, 
the  surface  is  quite  eaten  away,  and  a  crust  has  formed, 
which  may  be  resistant  to  similar  influences  in  the 
future,  on  the  face.  This  is  specially  apparent  in  the 
domes  at  the  top  of  the  building,  the  surface  of  which 
resembles  exposed  Portland  stone.  The  weathering  action, 
both  here  and  in  other  portions  of  the  building,  leaves 
the  surface  a  clear  white,  giving  a  rather  pleasing  effect. 


58         MARBLE  AND  MAEBLE  WORKING. 

Instances  of  the  use  of  coloured  marble  in  London 
exteriors  are  :  Swiss  Cippolino — Columns,  Electra  House, 
Finsbury  Pavement,  E.G.  ;  Verde  Antico,  banded  with 
Portland  Stone— Gaiety  Theatre,  Strand,  W.C.  ;  Breche 
Violette — Columns,  Hamilton  House,  Victoria  Embank- 
ment, E.G.,  and  Columns  and  Rusticated  Pilasters  (the 
latter  boxed  up  out  of  l|  in.  material)  at  22,  Oxford 
Street,  W.  ;  Campan  Vert — Pilasters,  Gainsborough  House, 
Hanover  Square,  W. ;  Rouge  Jaspe — Panels  at  side  of 
entrance,  Royal  Society  of  Painters  in  Water  Colours 
premises,  Pall  Mall  East,  S.W.  ;  Cornish  Serpentine- 
Tooth's  Galleries,  Hay  market,  S.W.,  and  Bank  of  British 
North  America,  Gracechurch  Street,  E.G.  (The  com- 
parison between  the  weathering  qualities  of  the  red  and 
green  varieties  of  serpentine  in  the  Haymarket  illustration 
is  interesting.)  Tinos — Messrs.  Debenham's  premises, 
Wigmore  Street,  "W.,  and  Messrs.  Abbott's  premises,  6-7 
Poultry,  E.G.  ;  Belgian  Rouge — Tooth's  Galleries,  Hay- 
market,  S.W.,  and  Sheffield  Telegraph  building,  Fleet 
Street,  E.G.  ;  and  Swedish  Green  at  the  new  Egyptian 
Hall,  Piccadilly,  W.  ;  Greek  Cippolino — Columns  at  the 
entrance  of  Messrs.  Waring's  premises,  Oxford  Street,  W., 
and  Columns  and  Pilasters  above .  ground-floor  level  at 
Messrs.  Evans's  premises,  etc.  Ashburton  (Devonshire) 
marble  is  employed  in  the  entrance  to  the  Restaurant  at 
Victoria  (S.E.  &  C.)  Railway  Station,  S.W. 

With  the  exception  of  Greek  Cippolino,  and  possibly 
Ashburton,  Tinos,  and  Swedish  Green,  the  instances  that 
have  occurred  have  resulted  in  demonstrating  what  to  avoid 
rather  than  what  to  use.  Generally  speaking,  it  appears 
that  while  certain  varieties  of  marble  are  available 
for  exterior  work,  their  general  use  is  inadvisable,  for  the 


PLATE  II. 


CIPPOLINO    (EUBCEA,    GREECE). 


[To  face  p.  58. 


WHY  COLOURED  MAEBLE  DISINTEGRATES.  59 

reason  that  discoloration  and  disintegration  will  ensue  as 
a  result  of  atmospherical  impurities — generally  sulphuric 
acid,  generated  by  the  action  of  rain-water  falling  through  a 
smoke-laden  atmosphere  on  to  soot-covered  buildings — the 
effect  sought  to  be  produced  by  their  use  being  thus  speedily 
lost,  even  if  nothing  worse  happens.  The  red  marbles 
mostly  contain  clayey  veins  and  patches,  which  disintegrate 
under  the  action  of  sun,  rain,  and  frost.  With  the  greens, 
efflorescence  results  ;  the  violets  lose  their  colour ;  while 
with  breccias  the  colours  fade,  and  a  leaching-out  becomes 
apparent  along  the  lines  of  the  cementing  medium  of  the 
material.  Laminated  marbles  waste  in  their  softer  layers, 
leaving  the  harder  parts  exposed,  and  these  in  the  course 
of  time  will  break  away.  In  the  exceptions  named,  these 
tendencies  appear  to  be  successfully  resisted.  Sufficient 
time  has  not  yet  elapsed,  however,  for  the  effect  of  the 
London  atmosphere  on  the  surface  of  the  marbles  to  be 
ascertained  with  certitude.* 

One  point  should  be  noted.  If  for  any  reason  it  is 
considered  advisable  to  employ  coloured  marble  for  ex- 
terior work,  the  material  should  always  be  solid,  or  at  least 
4  in.  thick.  To  use  it  boxed  up  in  thin  slabs  is  a  waste 
of  good  material,  and  should  be  avoided  in  all  cases. 
The  ordinary  methods  of  fixing  thin  slabs  are  altogether 
inadequate  for  exterior  work,  and  they  are  bound,  sooner 
or  later,  to  work  loose.  The  selection  of  the  material  is 
also  a  matter  that  requires  more  than  ordinary  attention. 


*  See  also  Hopton-Wood,  p.  109. 


60 


CHAPTEK  V. 

Uses  of  Marble  (other  than  for  Building  Purposes). 

THE  uses  of  marble,  apart  from  building  purposes,  may  be 
grouped  under  six  heads — Sculpture,  Monumental,  Shop- 
fitting,  Electrical,  Furnishing,  and  Decorative.  The 
supplies  for  sculpture  or  statuary  purposes  are  chiefly 
drawn  from  the  Seravezza  district,  the  quarries  of  Mont 
Altissimo  producing  the  best  quality.  It  is  also  obtained 
in  considerable  quantity  from  the  Carrara  district 
generally,  but  the  durability  and  reliability  under  the 
tool  of  other  than  Seravezza  statuary  is  considered  to 
be  lower  by  British  sculptors.  A  variety  quarried  at 
St.  Beat,  in  the  Haute  Gironde,  is  held  in  great  favour 
among  French  sculptors,  some  of  whom  are  stated  to 
prefer  it  to  any  Italian  variety.  Specially  selected  Greek 
Pentelikon  is  also  coming  into  favour.  The  texture  is 

o 

close,  and  the  sparkling  appearance  of  the  crystals  give  a 
live  effect  unapproachable  in  any  other  medium.  Care 
must  be  taken,  however,  to  avoid  the  greyish-white 
micaceous  seams  that  are  sometimes  encountered  in  this 
formation.  While  the  Greek  variety  is  harder  than  is  the 
Italian,  its  wearing  qualities  are  higher,  and  in  weathering 
it  is  asserted  that  it  assumes  a  warm,  creamy  tint  which 
is  most  effective.  The  Parian  marble  of  antiquity  is  as 
yet  only  obtainable  in  small  sizes  and  at  rare  intervals. 
Finest  Seravezza  statuary  is  most  difficult  to  obtain  free 
from  blemish,  and  is  easier  secured  in  small  blocks  ;  con- 
sequently, the  price  of  first-quality  material  varies  to  a 


SELECTION   OF   STATUARY   MARBLE.        61 

large  extent,  according  to  the  size  of  the  block  required. 
Small  blocks  of  good  quality,  of  sufficient  size  for  a  bust 
or  mask,  are  at  times  obtainable  for  as  little  as  ten  or 
twelve  shillings  per  foot  cube,  while  a  block  of  sufficient 
size  for  a  colossal  figure  (say  four  times  life  size)  would 
hardly  be  obtainable  at  four  times  the  price. 

While  the  art  of  sculpture  does  not  come  within  the 
purview  of  these  articles,  some  hints  respecting  the  selec- 
tion of  the  material  to  be  used  may  be  of  service. 

Marble  for  statuary  purposes  should  never  be  selected 
in  bright  weather.  Veinings  and  discolorations  are  more 
difficult  of  discovery  at  this  time  than  at  any  other.  A 
dull  day  with  a  good  light  is  the  best  time  for  inspection  ; 
if  after  a  shower  of  rain,  so  much  the  better.  Provided 
no  rain  has  fallen,  the  blocks  should  be  soused  with  water ; 
veins  and  stains  can  then  be  more  readily  perceived.  If 
possible,  have  each  block  slung  and  struck  with  a  hammer. 
If  the  sound  of  the  blow  is  dull  and  heavy,  look  out  for 
cracks.  Should  a  hard,  metallic  tone  be  emitted,  the 
marble  will  be  heavy  in  working ;  but  if  a  soft,  clear  ring 
is  heard,  the  material  is  sound,  and  will  both  work  and 
wear  well. 

Monumental. — The  supplies  of  marble  for  monu- 
mental purposes  are  drawn  from  the  whole  of  the  Carrara 
district,  the  greater  proportion  of  this  class  of  work  being 
imported  in  a  worked  or  partially  worked  state.  This  is 
accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  wages,  both  for  mason 
work  and  carving,  are  much  lower  in  Italy  than  at  home, 
and  that  the  waste  from  crosses,  etc.,  can  be  worked  up 
into  small  ornaments  to  greater  advantage  by  Italian 
workmen  than  could  be  the  case  in  this  country.  While 
the  application  of  pneumatic  tools  to  marble  working  has 


62         MAKBLE  AND   MAKBLE   WORKING. 

made  the  fashioning  of  "  purpose-made "  tombstones 
possible  to  a  small  extent,  practically  no  marble  work 
of  the  cheaper  description  is  executed  in  this  country. 
This  class  of  work  is  generally  imported  in  a  worked 
state,  only  the  fitting,  lettering,  and  fixing  finding 
employment  for  British  marble  masons. 

Shop-fitting,  Purposes  of  Utility,  etc. — The  use 
of  marble  for  the  fitting  up  of  retail  shops  is  on  the 
increase.  The  principal  demand  comes  from  businesses 
where  a  cold,  hard  substance  impervious  to  moisture  is 
required.  The  demand  for  marble  for  shop-fittings  is 
principally  from  butchers,  dairymen,  poulterers,  and 
retailers  of  fish  and  provisions.  Sicilian  marble  is  prin- 
cipally used,  and  the  work  is  mainly  executed  at  home. 
The  utility  of  the  material  for  these  purposes  is  un- 
questioned. Another  demand  that  has  come  into  force 
of  recent  years  is  that  of  marble  for  lavatory  fittings  and 
sanitary  work  generally.  The  Belgian  Rouges  and  Saint 
Anne's  marbles  are  principally  used  for  these  purposes. 
The  material  is  generally  worked  in  Belgium,  and  supplied 
ready  for  fixing.  Sicilian  marble  has  been  used  to  some 
extent  for  partitions  for  sanitary  work,  but  has  been  found 
to  stain  readily.  The  kitchens  of  restaurants  are  some- 
times lined  with  marble,  and  instances  have  occurred  of  its 
use  for  stable  fittings.  The  employment  of  marble  for 
lining  the  walls  of  operating-rooms,  etc.,  in  hospitals  is  on 
the  increase.  A  selected  variety  of  Sicilian  is  used,  all 
external  angles  being  rounded  and  internal  angles 
hollowed  out  of  the  solid  or  "  coved/'  The  junction 
with  the  floor  is  effected  by  a  coved  skirting,  thus  pro- 
viding a  surface  that  is  readily  cleaned  and  affords  no 
lodgment  for  disease  germs. 


USES   OF  MARBLE :    HOSPITAL  WORK.      63 


FIG.  26. 


"CLEANLINESS  AND  LIGHT." 
An  Operating-room  lined  with  Sicilian  Marble, 


64         MARBLE  AND   MARBLE   WORKING. 

Electrical. — The  demand  for  a  material  possessing 
high  non-conductivity  and  rigidity  for  use  for  switch- 
board purposes  has,  since  the  progress  that  has  occurred 
in  electrical  science,  been  considerable ;  and  while  several 
mediums  have  been  tried  and  found  wanting,  white  and 
dove-coloured  marbles  have  stood  most  of  the  tests  that 
have  been  set.  Marble  for  this  purpose  requires  careful 
selection.  It  should  not  be  too  hard,  or  the  risk  of  break- 
age during  the  drilling  process  will  be  increased  ;  it  must 
not  contain  prominent  veins,  or  its  conductivity  will  be 
apparent  on  the  lines  of  the  veining,  and  leakage  of  current 
will  occur,  electrolysis  of  metallic  substances  near  the 
terminals  being  liable  to  be  set  up.  At  the  same  time  it 
must  not  be  expensive,  and  must  present  a  good  appear- 
ance when  worked.  The  selection  of  marble  best  suited 
for  the  work  is  largely  a  matter  of  experience  ;  and  as 
defects  in  material  are  only  discovered  after  a  considerable 
amount  of  time  and  labour  has  been  spent  on  its  prepara- 
tion, it  is  advisable  for  each  slab  to  be  carefully  examined 
before  being  put  in  hand.  A  variety  of  Sicilian  marble 
containing  a  light  blue  tinge,  the  veinings  being  diffused, 
will  best  answer  the  requirements.  Italian  dove  marble, 
while  not  presenting  such  a  neat  appearance,  is  also 
suitable.  The  working  calls  for  extreme  accuracy,  which 
is  best  secured  where  machine  rather  than  hand  labour  is 
in  more  general  employment. 

Furnishing. — The  manufacture  of  marble  clock  cases 
gives  employment  to  a  large  number  of  hands  both  in 
France  and  Belgium.  The  work  is  specialised,  the  work- 
manship and  finish  of  these  articles  being  particularly  good. 
Clock  cases  are  produced  abroad  at  such  exceptionally  low 
prices  as  to  make  competition  impossible  in  this  country. 


USES  OF  MAEBLE  :  DECORATIVE  INTERIORS.  65 

The  supply  of  polished  marble  for  washstand  tops  and 
table-tops  for  restaurants  is  attaining  considerable  dimen- 
sions. Italian  (Sicilian)  and  Belgian  (Rouge  and  Belgian 
Granit)  houses  can  supply  stock  sizes  at  low  prices,  but 
for  purpose-made  work  the  British  manufacturer  can  often 
supply  to  advantage.  A  variety  of  Spanish  Rouge  is 
also  used  for  low-priced  furniture. 

The  use  of  marble  for  chimney-pieces  is  well  known. 
The  "  Builders'  Guide  "  for  1736  states  :  "  The  principal  use 
of  marble  in  architecture  is  for  chimney-pieces,  chimney 
foot-paces,  window-stools,  pavements,  etc.,"  and  gives  the 
additional  information  that  "  chimney-pieces  of  Egyptian 
or  black-sleak'd  marble,  or  ranee,  or  liver-color'd  marble, 
are  worth,  of  an  ordinary  size,  £12  or  £14  a  piece."  These 
prices  would  hardly  prevail  at  the  present  day.  The 
coloured  marble  chimney-pieces  in  ordinary  use  are 
principally  of  French,  Belgian,  or  Italian  manufacture, 
but  a  considerable  business  is  done  in  the  supply  of  these 
in  British  marbles,  also  in  the  working  of  marble  slips  as 
insets  in  wood  and  other  chimney -pieces. 

Decorative  Interiors. — The  use  of  coloured  marbles 
for  decorative  interiors  had  its  origin,  so  far  as  can  be  ascer- 
tained, with  the  ancient  Romans.  No  traces  of  such  use 
are  to  be  found  in  Grecian  architecture,  nor  are  any  remains 
of  coloured  interiors  existing.  Mr.  W.  Brindley  puts  its 
introduction  as  occurring  after  the  conquest  of  Egypt.* 
An  earlier  use  is,  however,  claimed  by  Mr.  Gerald  B. 
Brown.  In  his  treatise  on  "  The  Origin  of  Roman  Imperial 
Architecture,"  he  states :  "  There  are  the  strongest 
reasons  for  locating  in  the  Hellenistic  cities,  and  probably 

*  Transactions  of  R.I.B.A.,  New  Series,  Vol.  III.,  p.  47. 

F 


66         MAKBLE   AND   MARBLE   WORKING. 

at  Alexandria,  one  of  the  most  characteristic  forms  of 
decoration  employed  in  Imperial  Rome — that  of  veneering 
brick  or  concrete  structures  with  marble  slabs.  The  use  of 
costly  marbles  was  coming  into  fashion  at  Rome,  as  Pliny 
states,  in  the  last  ages  of  the  Republic,  and  there  is  a 
curious  piece  of  evidence  that  the  custom  was  imported 
from  abroad.  If,  with  the  assistance  of  Dr.  Mau 
("  Geschichte  der  decora tiven  Wandmalerei  in  Pompeji," 
Berlin,  1882,  and  "  Pompejanische  Beitrage,"  Berlin,  1879), 
the  history  of  Pompeian  wall  decoration  be  studied,  it  will 
be  found  that  the  oldest  form  of  it  was  the  imitation  in 
coloured  stones  of  slabs  of  variegated  marbles  (Mau, 
Geschichte,  p.  108).  The  employment  of  real  marbles 
was  at  the  time  evidently  a  foreign  luxury,  very  attrac- 
tive, but  too  costly  for  general  use.  It  was  reserved  for 
the  Romans  of  the  age  of  display  to  introduce  the  technique 
itself,  which  was  one  exactly  suited  to  the  genius  alike  of 
the  Hellenistic  and  of  the  Roman  Imperial  period."* 

CippoKno,  Pavonazzo,  and  other  rare  Roman  marbles 
have  been  found  not  only  in  Rome,  but  also  at  Carthage 
and  other  ruined  cities  in  West  and  North  Africa;  and 
while  it  is  evident  that  coloured  marble  was  known  and 
used  at  a  much  earlier  period  (the  sarcophagus  of 
Nectanebes  I.,  circa  B.C.  378,  and  now  in  the  British 
Museum,  was  executed  in  Breccia  Verde  or  Verde  Univer- 
sellef ),  there  is  practically  no  proof  that  such  use  was 
extensive  in  pre-Roman  days. 

After  the  downfall  of  the  Roman  Empire,  and  the 
capture  of  Constantinople  by  the  Turks,  the  use  of  marble 


*  Transactions  of  R.I.B.A.,  New  Series,  Yol.  V.,  p.  156. 

f  W.  Brindley  :  Transactions  of  R.I.B.A.,  New  Series,  Vol.  IV.,  p.  24. 


MAEBLE  FOR  ECCLESIASTICAL  WORK.      67 

lapsed  for  a  considerable  period,  to  be  revived  again 
with  the  rise  of  civilisation  following  the  Dark  Ages. 
Numerous  instances  of  the  employment  of  marble  are  to 
be  found  in  the  ecclesiastical  architecture  of  Europe  from 

FIG.  27. 


Caiupan  Vert 

and 
Swiss  Cippolino. 


Derbyshire 
Alabaster. 


Frosterley. 


THE  MARBLE  PULPIT,  BOMBAY  CATHEDRAL. 
An  example  of  British  workmanship. 

the  tenth  century  onward  ;  and  while  a  review  of  leading 
instances  would  be  of  interest  to  many,  the  scope  of  the 
present  work  will  not  admit  of  their  description.  Spain, 
Italy,  France,  and  the  Low  Countries  abound  with  such 

F  2 


68         MAEBLE  AND   MARBLE  WORKING. 

work ;  and  with  each  succeeding  architectural  period  the 
use  of  marble  for  purposes  of  decoration  became  more 
prevalent,  being  at  its  highest  shortly  before  the  French 
Revolution.  It  then  suffered  another  relapse,  and  is  again 
reviving  and  possibly  coming  into  more  general  use  than 
at  any  previous  period.  So  far  as  Great  Britain  is  con- 
cerned, the  greater  number  of  the  schemes  carried  through 
have  been  worked  by  foreign  craftsmen,  the  work  being 
imported  all  ready  for  fixing.  While  the  proportionate 
amount  of  marble  work  executed  in  this  country  has 
been  small,  the  instances  that  can  be  adduced  are  of  the 
highest  class,  and  there  is  little  doubt  that,  in  this  branch 
of  industry,  as  in  many  others,  British  working  will 
ultimately  be  able  to  hold  its  own.  This  is  specially  the 
case  with  ecclesiastical  work,  which  has  largely  increased 
of  recent  years,  and  a  large  proportion  of  which  has  been 
executed  by  British  firms  throughout. 

The  use  of  coloured  marble  for  decorative  purposes  is 
increasing  at  a  rapid  rate.  The  evenness  of  surface  that 
can  be  obtained,  the  effects  of  light  and  shade  that  can 
be  secured,  the  harmonious  colour  schemes  that  can  be 
evolved,  all  point  to  marble  as  being  par  excellence  the 
best  medium  for  the  decorative  treatment  of  interiors. 
Municipal  buildings,  hotels,  banks,  offices,  restaurants, 
etc.,  are  nowadays  considered  incomplete  without  some 
such  feature,  and  a  large  amount  of  white  and  coloured 
marble  is  also  used  in  the  interior  decoration  of  private 
mansions.  While  imitations  galore  are  continuously  being 
introduced,  the  natural  product  will,  where  true  art  is 
required,  always  hold  its  own,  no  imitation  being  capable 
of  comparison  with  the  output  from  Nature's  workshop. 


69 


CHAPTEE  VI. 

Sources  of  Production :   Italian  Marbles. 

THE  supply  of  material  for  use  in  the  United  Kingdom  is 
drawn  from  all  parts  of  the  world.  Only  a  small  pro- 
portion is  secured  from  British  quarries,  partly  for  reasons 
that  will  be  referred  to  later,  and  partly  on  account  of  the 
fact  that  several  varieties  are  in  regular  demand  that  are 
unobtainable  from  British  sources.  Nearly  every  country 
in  Europe,  the  French  Colonies  in  North  Africa,  and 
several  localities  in  North  and  South  America  are  con- 
tributaries  to  British  requirements.  Whilst  our  principal 
supplies  are  obtained  from  Italy,  France,  and  Belgium,  the 
Scandinavian  and  Iberian  peninsulas  send  us  considerable 
quantities  ;  material  is  also  secured  from  Austria,  Germany, 
and  Switzerland.  Onyx  marble  is  obtained  from  the 
United  States,  Mexico,  Brazil,  and  Algeria,  while  from  the 
latter  colony,  with  the  adjacent  one  of  Tunisia,  come  the 
Numidian  marbles  of  olden  times. 

The  premier  position  held  by  Italy  for  the  supply  of 
marble  is  due  to  the  immense  deposits  of  white  marble 
situate  in  the  Apuan  Alps.  The  formation  consists  of  a 
mass  of  crystalline  limestone  of  Triassic  Age,  covering 
some  80  square  miles,  the  deposits  being  estimated  at 
not  less  than  1,400  ft.  in  depth.  By  far  the  greater 
part  of  the  deposit  is  not,  however,  of  commercial 
utility,  partly  on  account  of  the  material  being  unsuitable 
for  the  purposes  for  which  marble  is  used,  and  partly  on 
account  of  the  inaccessibility  of  many  of  the  usable 


70         MAEBLE  AND  MAKBLE  WORKING. 

varieties,  the  cost  of  transport  of  which  would  absorb  the 
greater  part,  if  not  the  whole,  of  the  price  obtainable  at 
the  seaboard.  The  supply  of  white  marble  is  principally 
obtained  from  the  neighbourhood  of  Carrara,  Massa,  and 
Seravezza.  While  the  marble  deposits  existing  are  of 
great  extent,  the  concessions  are  so  numerous  that  quarries 
are  crowded  together  in  such  a  manner  as  to  be  a  hindrance 
to  economic  development.  The  wasteful  methods  of 


FIG.  28. 


MAEBLE  DEBEIS  AT  CAEEAEA. 


extraction  adopted  in  the  past  have  buried  thousands  upon 
thousands  of  tons  of  good  marble  under  accumulations  of 
rubbish,  and  the  price  at  which  the  marble  is  put  upon  the 
market  does  not  allow,  in  many  cases,  of  the  removal  of 
this  waste.  As  a  consequence,  it  is  found  that  while  the 
improved  methods  of  extraction  secured  by  the  use  of  the 
wire  saw  have  greatly  assisted  development,  the  effects  of 
the  primitive  system,  or  lack  of  system,  in  force  until  a 
few  years  ago  are  increasingly  perceptible.  The  result  is 
apparent  in  the  greater  distances  from  the  seaboard  at 


METHODS  OF  TRANSPORT,  CARRARA.   71 

which  new  quarries  have  to  be  opened,  and  the  additional 
cost  of  transport,  together  with  the  increases  in  wages  that 
are  taking  place,  will  probably  have  an  effect  in  higher 
prices  of  the  material  in  time  to  come.  Despite  these 
disadvantages,  the  available  supply  is  practically  inex- 
haustible, and  the  neighbourhood  can  be  depended  on  for 
the  production  of  ordinary  quality  marble  for  an  unlimited 
period.  The  physical  formation  throughout  the  Carrara 

FIG.  29. 


TRANSPORTING  BLOCKS  FROM   QUARRY  TO  WORKSHOP, 
CARRARA. 

district  facilitates  the  transportation  of  blocks  from  the 
quarries  to  the  workshops,  and  thence  to  the  coast,  to  no 
small  extent.  All  the  quarries  are  situated  well  up  the 
mountain  side,  and  the  cost  of  bringing  blocks  from  their 
place  of  origin  is,  owing  to  the  slope  of  the  land,  much 
lower  than  on  the  majority  of  marble  fields.  The 
methods  adopted  for  transporting  material  from  the 
quarries  to  the  sawing-sheds  and  studii  range  from 
the  lowering  of  blocks  on  skids,  and  hauling  by  bullock 
waggons,  to  ordinary  railway  traction.  In  some  in- 


72         MAKBLE   AND   MAEBLE  WOKKING. 

stances,  material  of  good  quality  is  obtained  high  up 
the  mountain  side  from  places  that  less  than  a  quarter 
of  a  century  ago  would  have  been  regarded  as  in- 
accessible. In  the  Sagro  Valley,  the  sole  quarrying  rights 
of  which  are  owned  by  a  British  firm  (Messrs.  Walton, 
Gooddy  &  Cripps,  Ltd.),  some  of  the  quarries  are  situate 
near  the  summit  of  the  mountain.  The  larger  blocks 
secured  are  sleighed  down  the  "  Balzone,"  a  slide  hewn 
out  of  the  solid  marble  for  a  distance  of  three-quarters  of 
a  mile,  with  an  average  incline  of  45°.  Small  blocks  are 
conveyed  from  the  quarry  to  the  saw -mills  over  a  funicular 
railway,  consisting  of  a  double-line  aerial  cable-way,  with 
a  carrying  capacity  up  to  five  tons.  The  span  of  the 
cable  is  700  yds.,  between  supports,  the  upper  station 
being  situate  1,490  ft.  above  the  level  of  the  lower. 
The  carriers  are  also  employed  in  conveying  material 
for  use  in  quarrying  operations  to  the  upper  station  (see 
Fig.  30). 

The  marble,  whether  in  block,  slab,  or  worked 
material,  is  conveyed  in  small  coasting  vessels  to  Leghorn, 
and  is  thence  exported  to  all  parts  of  the  world.  The 
cost  of  handling  is  considerable,  and  increases  to  a  large 
extent  where  blocks  of  three  tons  and  over  have  to  be 
handled.  When  the  extent  of  the  trading  is  taken 
into  consideration,  it  is  surprising  that  arrangements  are 
not  made  for  direct  supply  from  the  nearest  available 
port — Avenza. 

The  amount  of  marble  produced  approximates  300,000 
tons  each  year,  80  per  cent,  of  which  is  exported. 
Notwithstanding  the  development  of  the  American 
quarrying  industry,  the  United  States  is  still  Italy's  best 
customer,  and  takes  some  20  per  cent,  of  her  output. 


FIG.  30. 


THE  FUNICULAR  RAILWAY,  SAGRO  VALLEY,  CARRARA. 


[To  face  p.  72. 


CARRARA  MARBLES.  73 

The  demand  from  Germany  is  nearly  equal  to  that  of 
the  United  States,  and  is  followed  by  Great  Britain, 
1 5  per  cent ;  France,  1 3  per  cent ;  the  remainder 
of  the  product  not  required  for  home  use  going  to 
countries  with  lesser  demands.  It  can  be  said  with 
truth  that  Italy  supplies  the  world  with  white 
marble. 

Italian  white  marble  is  divided  into  three  grades — 
Sicilian,  Vein,  and  Statuary.  The  name  "  Sicilian "  is 
one  peculiar  to  the  English  trade,  the  origin  of  which 
is  somewhat  doubtful.  Sicilian  marble  corresponds 
with  the  Bianco  Chiaro  of  Italy,  and  includes  all  white 
Italian  marble,  the  veining  of  which  is  cloudy  and 
irregular.  The  bulk  of  the  marble  for  the  British  market 
is  obtained  from  the  group  of  quarries  in  the  Ravaccione 
ravine,  near  Carrara,  and  the  Sagro  Valley,  in  the 
immediate  neighbourhood.  Vein  marble  has  a  lighter 
ground  than  Sicilian,  and  the  markings  are  more 
accentuated.  The  principal  quarries  are  situate  in  the 
Canal  Grande,  Grand  Ravine,  and  at  Gioja,  Collonata. 
Statuary  is  pure  white  marble,  free  from  spots  and 
veins.  The  Statuary  obtained  from  Bettolia,  near 
Carrara,  while  of  good  appearance,  is  soft  in  working, 
and  will  not  wear  well.  The  best  varieties  are  obtained 
from  Seravezza  (see  "  Uses  of  Marble,"  p.  66,  etc.). 
The  names  of  Second  Statuary,  Bastard  Statuary,  and 
Statuary  Vein  are  given  to  varieties  of  marble  falling 
between  these  groups.  These  are  variable  in  quality, 
and  include  all  varieties  of  Carrara,  Massa,  and 
Seravezza  marbles  having  a  white  or  statuary  ground,  with 
more  or  less  markings.  Sicilian  is  the  best  marble  for 
hard  wear,  and  is  used  for  treads  of  staircases,  floors,  etc. 


74         MARBLE  AND   MARBLE  WORKING. 

The   other   varieties   are   in    occasional    use  for    interior 
decorative  purposes. 

The  whole  of  the  older  quarries  are  situated  on  the 
southern  slopes  of  the  Apuan  Alps.  During  the  past  few 
years  quarries  have  been  opened  up  in  the  Equi  Valley, 
on  the  northern  slope  of  the  mountains,  where  it  was 
known  that  extensive  deposits  of  white  marble  were  in 
existence,  the  marble  being  shipped  from  Spezia.  The 
venture  has  only  met  with  partial  success,  the  marble 
coming  on  the  market  from  this  source  being  mostly  of 
a  soft  and  friable  nature.  It  is  anticipated,  however,  that 
as  these  deposits  are  further  exploited,  the  quality  of  the 
marble  will  improve,  and  a  further  valuable  source  of 
supply  be  added  to  the  world's  markets. 

Italy  produces  a  choice  variety  of  coloured  marbles. 
Pavonazzo  and  Dove  are  both  quarried  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Carrara.  Some  of  the  finest  brecciated  marbles 
are  secured  from  the  quarries  of  Piedmont,  and  the 
marbles  of  Siena,  Verona,  and  Brescia  are  well  known  and 
extensively  used.  Many  of  the  green  marbles  used  in 
this  country  are  obtained  from  the  Provinces  of  Tuscany 
and  Curia ;  and  some  fine  brecciated  varieties  have 
recently  come  on  the  market  from  the  Calabrian  district 
of  Southern  Italy,  shipments  being  made  from  Messina. 
Extensive  deposits  of  onyx  are  also  available,  mainly  from 
the  neighbourhood  of  Tivoli ;  and  Italian  alabaster,  raised 
and  worked  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Volterra,  is  known 
all  over  the  world.  The  latter  product  is  often  substituted 
for  statuary  marble  for  low-priced  ornaments.  After  the 
work  is  completed,  it  is  placed  in  a  vessel  filled  with  cold 
water,  and  brought  to  boiling-point.  This  has  the  effect 
of  slightly  hardening  the  surface  of  the  material,  and  of 


PLATE  III. 


[To  face  p.  74. 


COLOURED  MARBLES   FROM   ITALY.         75 


making  it  more  opaque. 
Italian  alabaster  is 
sometimes  sold  as 
"  Castellina  "  marble. 
Articles  worked  from 
this  material  are  often 
foisted  on  an  unsus- 
pecting public  at 
seaside  auction  marts 
and  at  the  so-called 
forced  sales  of  artistic 
productions  that  are 
to  be  encountered  in 
London  and  elsewhere. 
Vol  terra  alabaster  can 
be  distinguished  from 
marble  by  the  fact 
that  it  can  readily  be  scratched  with  the  thumb-nail. 
Its  value  is  about  one-fifth  of  that  of  a  similar  article 
produced  in  Carrara  Statuary. 

The  principal  method  of  extraction  employed  in  Italy 
is  the  wire  saw,  both  alone  and  in  conjunction  with  the 
penetrating  pulley.  Large  blasts  are  still  resorted  to  in 
some  of  the  less  accessible  places,  the  masses  of  rock 
dislodged  being  afterwards  cut  up  into  transportable 
blocks.  This  is  done  in  some  cases  by  means  of  the  wire 
saw.  In  some  of  the  smaller  of  the  coloured  marble 
quarries,  wedging  and  the  plug  and  feather  system  is  still 
resorted  to. 


AFTER  A  BLAST,  CARRARA. 


76 


CHAPTER   VII. 

Sources  of  Production  :   French  and   Belgian   Marbles. 

THE  quarrying  and  working  of  marble  in  Gallic  territory 
are  older  than  is  the  French  nation.  When  Gaul  was  a 
Roman  province,  marble  was  produced  from  her  quarries 
and  fashioned  in  her  workshops,  and  at  least  four  marbles 
of  Gallic  origin  were  used  for  decorative  purposes  in 
Imperial  Rome.  Ancient  work  existing  throughout 
Southern  France,  executed  in  native  marbles,  bears  testi- 
mony to  the  durability  of  the  material  and  the  skill  shown 
by  the  Gallic  workmen  of  olden  days.  The  ecclesiastical 
architecture  of  the  Mediaeval  period  abounds,  too,  with 
instances  of  marble  work  of  a  high  order,  and  with  each 
succeeding  period  the  use  of  the  material  was  enlarged, 
and  its  value  for  purposes  of  decoration  brought  into 
greater  prominence.  The  industry  was  encouraged  by 
several  of  the  French  monarchs,  especially  during  the  time 
of  the  French  Renaissance,  and  the  State  records  show 
several  instances  of  the  interest  taken  by  the  kings  of 
France  in  the  development  of  the  various  marble  quarries 
of  the  kingdom.  Stores  were  accumulated  by  the  various 
kings,  from  Louis  XII.  onward,  and  records  are  existing 
of  several  agreements  made  for  the  supply  of  tackle, 
labour,  etc.,  for  the  carrying  out  of  contracts  in  various 
coloured  marbles,  the  material  being  supplied  from  the 
king's  store.  Perhaps  the  highest  point  in  the  industry 
was  attained  at  the  time  of  Louis  XIV".,  in  whose  reign 
occurred  the  building  of  the  Palace  at  Versailles,  the 


FRENCH   MARBLES.  77 

greater  and  lesser  Trianons,  and  the  king's  houses  at 
Marly  and  Meudon.  The  stocks  of  marble  that  accumu- 
lated at  this  period  are  said  to  have  been  sufficient  not 
only  to  meet  the  demand  set  up  by  these  erections,  but 
were  available  for  the  requirements  that  were  in  force 
right  down  to  the  time  of  the  Revolution. 

The  internal  unrest  prevailing  in  France  and  through- 
out Southern  Europe  during  the  First  Republic  and  the 
Napoleonic  regime  was  such  that  the  marble  industry,  in 
common  with  many  others,  was  practically  extinguished, 
and  it  was  not  until  1835  that  an  upward  movement  was 
perceptible.  Since  this  date  the  prosperity  of  the  marble 
trade  in  France  has  been  a  continually  increasing  one. 
The  majority  of  the  older-known  marbles  are  again 
quarried,  and  many  new  deposits  have  been  exploited,  and 
are  available  for  present-day  requirements.  In  a  list  of 
one  hundred  of  the  marbles  best  known  to  commerce, 
prepared  by  Mr.  Arthur  Lee  in  1887,*  no  less  than  thirty- 
two  were  of  French  origin,  and  many  new  varieties  have 
since  then  come  into  use,  and  are  now  on  the  market. 

The  most  prolific  of  the  marble- yielding  provinces  are 
to  be  found  on  the  southern  borders  skirting  the  Pyrenees. 
The  Haute  Gironde,  Hautes  Pyrenees,  and  Pyrenees 
Orientales,  are  all  of  them  rich  with  marble-bearing  strata, 
as  are  the  Provinces  of  Ariege,  Var,  and  the  Hautes  Alpes. 
Some  fine  breccias  are  quarried  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Molinges,  Jura  ;  one  of  the  richest-coloured  of  red  marbles 
comes  from  Aude ;  many  varieties  of  Brittany  marble  are 
obtained  from  Mayenne  and  Sarthe  ;  and  a  number  of 
unicoloured  marbles  come  from  the  Pas  de  Calais  district. 

*  "Marble  and  Marble  Workers,"  Ch.  12,  p.  122,  etc. 


78         MARBLE  AND  MAEBLE  WORKING. 

The  French  colonies  of  Tunisia  and  Algeria  produce 
some  exceptionally  fine  marbles,  which,  though  small  in 
number,  are  largely  used  throughout  Europe  and  America. 
These  are  generally  known  as  "  Numidian  "  marbles,  some 
of  them  being  identical  with  the  marbles  thus  known  to  the 
ancients.  The  principal  Algerian  quarries  are  situate  in 
the  Montagne  G-rise,  some  20  miles  north-east  of 
Oran,  from  which  port  they  are  shipped.  The  colours 
range  from  the  rich  yellow  of  Jaune  Antique  to  the 
brilliant  red  of  Breche  Sanguine.  The  neighbourhood  is 
of  interest  on  account  of  the  traces  that  remain  of  the  old 
workings.  Blocks  of  stone  are  here  to  be  seen  which  were 
extracted  nearly  2,000  years  ago,  and  the  original 
grooves  and  wedge  holes  for  further  extractions  are  also  in 
evidence. 

The  deposits  of  marble  found  at  Chemtou,  in  Tunisia, 
are  of  great  value.  One  of  these  is  the  Giallo  Antico  of 
ancient  Rome.  Portions  of  the  road  constructed  by 
Hadrian  (A.D.  128-9)  for  the  conveyance  of  the  marble 
from  the  quarries  to  the  Port  of  Tabarca  are  still  existing. 
Blocks  are  now  put  on  rail  at  Oued-Meliz,  and  shipped  at 
Bona  or  Tunis. 

Onyx  marble  is  also  obtained  from  Algeria,  the  principal 
quarries  being  situate  at  Ain  Tecbulet,  near  Tlemgen. 
While  of  less  brilliancy  than  the  American  varieties, 
Algerian  onyx  is  of  great  beauty,  and  is  extensively  used 
for  decorative  purposes,  also  for  high-class  furniture  and 
ornaments.  A  brilliant  red  variety  of  onyx  has  recently 
been  located  in  this  district,  and  is  now  on  the  market. 

The  methods  of  extraction  most  prevalent  throughout 
France  are  the  wire  saw  and  wedge  and  drill  work  in 
combination,  explosives  being  used  in  but  exceptional 


BELGIAN   MARBLES.  79 

cases.  Channelling  machinery  of  light  build  has  been  tried 
to  a  small  extent,  but  the  results  obtained  have  not 
justified  its  retention. 

Belgian  Marbles. — The  marble  industry  of  Belgium 
is  a  practical  illustration  of  how  energetic  working  and 
perseverance  will  enable  a  country  that  is  far  from  rich  in 
a  particular  product  to  take  hold  of  the  material  and  make 
the  trade  therein  her  own.  The  marbles  produced  in 
Belgium  are  generally  of  an  inferior  grade,  but  they  have 
been  well  exploited,  and  are  perhaps  better  known  than 
the  greater  number  of  the  choice  varieties.  Nor  is  this  all. 
Belgian  firms  are  among  the  largest  workers  of  marble, 
and  are  the  principal  workers  for  the  British  market. 
While  the  bulk  of  the  marble  exports  to  Great  Britain 
shows  a  large  turnover,  it  is  probable  that  considerably 
over  one-half  of  the  declared  value  and  one-third  of  the 
tonnage  represents  marble  of  French,  Italian,  Greek,  etc., 
origin.  One  firm  alone  has  a  turnover  in  Great  Britain 
approximating  £60,000  per  annum,  and  although  the 
proprietors  are  themselves  extensive  owners  and  workers 
of  Belgian  marble  quarries,  they  admit  that  nearly  two- 
thirds  of  this  amount  represents  marbles  of  foreign  (i.e.. 
other  than  Belgian)  origin. 

The  principal  Belgian  marble  deposits  are  of  Devonian 
and  Carboniferous  Age.  They  are  not  of  handsome  appear- 
ance, and  are  seldom  used  for  decorative  purposes,  the  bulk 
of  the  supply  being  utilised  for  cheap  shop-fitting,  table- 
tops,  and  sanitary  work.  The  carboniferous  formations 
are  exceptionally  sound — in  fact,  Belgian  Black  is  one  of 
the  best,  and  is  certainly  the  most  extensively  used  of 
all  black  marbles.  Another  variety,  misnamed  Belgian 
"  Granit,"  is  largely  used  for  building  purposes,  and  has 


80         MARBLE  AND  MARBLE  WORKING. 

been  employed  to  a  small  extent  for  this  purpose  in 
London,  Bristol,  and  elsewhere.  Bleu  Beige,  or  Belgian 
Grand  Antique,  is  in  considerable  demand  for  skirtings, 
etc.  ;  and  Saint  Anne's — a  dark  grey,  nearly  black  marble, 
with  light  grey  markings — had  at  one  time  the  reputation 
of  being  the  soundest  coloured  marble  existing.  This 
distinction  it  now  shares  with  other  productions.  The 
red  marbles  are  sold  under  high-sounding  names — Rouge 
Imperial,  Rouge  Royal,  Rouge  Byzantine,  Rouge  Fleuri, 
etc. —  but  there  is  little  distinction  between  them,  save 
that  of  the  colour  tone,  which  varies  from  a  brownish  red, 
with  white  crystalline  veins,  to  a  washed-out,  light  brown 
shade,  with  white  and  grey  patches  and  irregular,  broken 
veinings.  The  better  varieties  are  sound,  and  are  available 
for  interior  constructional  work,  as  at  the  London  City 
and  Midland  Bank,  Birmingham,  where  columns  of  this 
material  are  employed ;  but,  ordinarily,  "  Rouge "  is  a 
table- top  or  underground  convenience  marble,  capable  of 
relieving  Sicilian  occasionally  in  a  counter-front  or  shop- 
fitting,  and  mainly  used  because  it  is  cheap.  The  soundest 
of  the  Belgian  Rouges  is  the  variety  known  as  "  Rouge 
Griotte." 

An  exception  should  be  made  of  "  Rouge  de  Ranee," 
which,  while  being  of  similar  formation  to  other  Belgian 
Rouges,  is  rightly  classed  as  a  decorative  marble.  The 
markings  are  somewhat  heavy,  but  a  combined  effect  of 
brilliance  and  solidity  is  obtained  by  its  use.  The  Ranee 
quarries  were  reopened  in  July,  1900,  after  being  closed 
for  nearly  200  years.  One  of  the  last  contracts  previous 
to  closing  was  the  supply  of  blocks  for  the  large 
columns  for  the  Palace  of  Louis  XIV.  at  Versailles,  then 
in  course  of  construction.  The  reopening  was  for  the 


BELGIAN  MARBLES. 


81 


purpose  of  securing  120  monolith  column  blocks  for  use 
in  the  construction  of  Antwerp  Railway  Station.  This 
marble  is  mentioned  in  Neve's  "  Builders'  Guide "  of 
1736  as  being  in  use  in  England  for  chimney-pieces.  A 
handsome  breccia  is  secured  from  Hastieres,  near  Dinant. 
The  surface  presents  a  bewildering  variety  of  colours— 

FIG.  32. 


\ 


A  BLOCK  OF  RANGE  MARBLE  AS  QUARRIED. 

black,  red,  brown,  grey,  pink,  and  white  being  mingled  in 
fragments  of  all  shapes  and  sizes. 

The  principal  deposits  of  Saint  Anne's  marbles  are  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  Gougnies — where  a  deposit  exists 
over  6  miles  in  length,  60  ft.  in  width,  and  100  ft.  in 
depth — and  at  La  Bussiere,  near  Erquellines.  The  latter 
deposits  are  of  lower  quality,  and  are  in  less  demand. 

G 


82         MARBLE   AND   MARBLE   WORKING. 

Rouge  is  mainly  obtained  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Philip- 
ville. 

The  methods  of  quarrying  in  force  in  Belgium  are 
among  the  finest  in  Europe,  and  the  leading  Continental 
manufacturers  of  quarrying  machinery  being  of  Belgian 
establishment  — principally  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Namur 
and  Charleroi — the  first  application  of  new  processes  is 
often  made  in  Belgian  quarries.  The  wire  saw  is  in 
general  use,  sometimes  in  conjunction  with  the  penetrating 
pulley,  and  in  some  instances  working  in  shafts  sunk  by 
revolving  drills  of  hollow  sections  of  from  2  ft.  to  4  ft.  in 
diameter.  These  permit  of  the  core  being  extracted  intact — 
practically  a  roughed-out  marble  column  (see  Fig.  14). 

The  facilities  both  for  quarrying  and  handling  the 
material  are  suitable  to  the  deposits,  and  are  well  managed. 
In  the  Petit  Granit  quarries,  at  Soignies,  the  deposits 
are  in  layers  of  (a)  Soil  covering  varying  from  6  ft.  to  30  ft. 
in  depth ;  (b)  Bad  rock,  known  as  raches,  and  utilised 
for  hydraulic  lime,  30  ft.  in  depth ;  (c)  Building  stone, 
15  ft.  to  20  ft.  in  depth  ;  (d)  Best  quality  stone,  suitable 
for  marble  purposes,  and  having  an  average  depth  of  75  ft. 
An  earth  seam,  2  in.  thick,  separates  the  bottom  layer 
from  that  immediately  above  it.  This  is  named  "  deiit  a  la 
terre."  The  beds  incline  at  an  angle  of  12°.  The  appli- 
ances in  use  include  Ingersoll  rock  drills,  for  breaking  out 
the  raches.  This  is  effected  by  means  of  explosives, 
the  good  beds  being  worked  by  the  plug  and  feather 
system.  The  wire  saw  is  used  for  working  the  lower  beds, 
the  sinkings  for  the  pulleys  being  made  by  circular  drills, 
making  holes  of  3  ft.  diameter  and  13  ft.  deep.  The  size  of 
the  blocks  secured  are  only  limited  by  the  capacity  of  the 
lifting  machinery.  This  includes  three  60-ton  capstans, 


QUARRYING  METHODS   IN   BELGIUM.       83 

for  hauling  blocks  to  the  surface  by  means  of  an  inclined 
plane,  and  a  rolling  bridge  or  travelling  crane  of  similar 
capacity.  These  are  worked  by  electrical  power.  The 
smaller  blocks  are  removed  by  steam  cranes  of  less 
capacity.  All  of  these  appliances  are  in  operation  at  the 

FIG.  33. 


PETIT  GRANIT  QUARRY  AT  SOIGNIES,  BELGIUM. 

Perlonjour  quarries,  Soignies,  the  output  of  which  averages 
over  50,000  tons  yearly  of  marble  and  building  stone. 
Petit  Granit  is  quarried  at  Maffles,  Soignies,  Eucassines, 
and  Feluy-Arquennes,  in  the  Province  of  Hainaut,  also  in 
the  valleys  of  the  Hoyoux  and  Ourthe  rivers,  in  the 
Province  of  Liege.  The  material  obtained  from  the 
Ourthe  Valley  is  more  highly  esteemed  for  employment  as 

G  2 


84          MARBLE  AND   MARBLE   WORKING. 

marble,  the  principal  use  of  the  output  from  other 
centres  being  for  building  purposes.  Petit  Granit  is  in 
extensive  use  in  leading  Belgian  towns,  and  is  largely 
exported  to  France,  Holland,  and  Germany. 

The  principal  deposits  of  black  marble  are  situate  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  Golzinnes,  north  of  Namur.  The 
formation  extends  for  some  8  miles  from  Villaret-sous- 
Saint-Martin-Balatre,  through  Mazy  and  Golzinnes  to 
Isnes-Sauvages.  The  deposits  are  from  30  ft.  to  40  ft.  in 
depth,  and  incline  at  an  angle  of  18°.  The  marble  beds 
occur  in  regular  layers,  which  are  separated  by  a  bitu- 
minous shale  of  no  value.  They  vary  in  thickness  from 
a  few  inches  to  4  ft.,  the  deeper  beds — which  are  of  best 
quality  material — being  on  the  lower  levels.  All  the 
beds  are  quite  free  in  working. 

The  nature  of  the  formation  necessitates  mining,  rather 
than  quarrying,  being  resorted  to  in  order  to  secure  the 
better  qualities  of  marble.  The  workings  follow  the  dip 
of  the  formation,  which  is  extremely  regular.  Blocks  are 
loosened  from  the  rock  by  means  of  explosives,  and  after- 
wards broken  up  with  bars,  large  pillars  being  left  to 
support  the  roof.  The  blocks  are  hauled  to  the  surface  by 
an  inclined  plane,  the  winding  machinery  being  driven  by 
electricity.  The  presence  of  water  adds  to  the  difficulty 
of  securing  material,  and  in  one  quarry  known  to  the 
writer,  the  depth  of  which  is  over  250  ft.,  pumps  having  a 
capacity  of  1,750  cubic  ft.  per  hour  are  in  operation. 
Belgian  Black  is  an  exceptionally  hard  marble,  and  most 
difficult  to  work  for  those  unacquainted  with  its 
peculiarities.  The  marble  has  an  exceedingly  fine  grain, 
and  takes  a  splendid  polish.  It  is  supplied  in  four 
qualities — best,  second  best,  common,  and  inferior. 


85 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

Sources  of  Production :  Greek  Marbles. 

THE  introduction  of  Greek  marbles  into  Great  Britain, 
other  than  as  works  of  antiquity,  practically  dates  from 
1896.  Previous  to  this  date,  the  only  Grecian  marble 
available  for  export  was  obtained  from  the  deposits  of 
Eosso  Antico,  at  Lagei'a,  the  ancient  quarries  here  and  at 
Cynopolis,  Damaristica,  having  been  rediscovered  some 
ten  years  earlier.  The  Verde  Antico  deposits  were  located 
by  Mr.  W.  Brindley  in  1889,*  no  less  than  ten  ancient 
quarries  being  found.  The  marbles  secured  show  every 
shade  and  variety  of  Verde  Antico  as  seen  in  the  buildings 
of  ancient  Rome  and  Constantinople,  as  well  as  some 
extremely  rare  greens  seen  in  the  Vatican  and  Louvre 
Museums,  and  till  then  attributed  to  Egyptian  origin. 
After  prolonged  negotiations,  a  concession  was  obtained  to 
extract  the  material,  and  in  1896  the  Verde  Antico 
Marble  Company  was  formed,  with  a  capital  of  £20,000, 
to  work  the  quarries  on  systematic  lines.  Primitive 
methods  of  extraction  have  given  way  to  working  on 
modern  lines,  the  wire  saw  being  the  mode  of  extraction 
in  most  general  use. 

Verde  Antico,  whether  as  a  constructional  (interior 
only)  or  decorative  medium,  occupies  a  status  peculiarly 
its  own.  The  colour  tones  and  formation  of  the  marble 
are  unique.  The  deposits  admit  of  blocks  being  secured 

*  See  Transactions  of  B.I.B.  A.,  Series  III.,  Vol.  III.,  p.  267. 


86 


MARBLE  AND  MAKBLE  WORKING. 


to  any  dimensions  within  reason,  and  the  output  is,  as  it 
deserves  to  be,  an  increasing  one. 

The  Pentelikon  deposits  were  reopened  in  1834,  after 
nearly    1,500    years   of    disuse,    the   occasion   being   the 


FIG.  34. 


A  PENTELIKON  QUARRY. 

erection  of  the  palace  of  King  Otho  at  Athens  and 
various  government  buildings.  A  period  of  depression 
ensued,  and  it  was  not  until  1861  that  the  quarries  were 
again  in  active  work,  when  over  7,000  tons  of  the  material 
was  used  in  the  erection  of  the  Academy  of  Science.  This 


PENTELIKON   MARBLE.  87 

was  followed  by  the  Polytechnic  School,  the  Central 
Museum,  the  Parliamentary  buildings,  etc.,  and  although 
difficulties  existed  in  developing  an  export  trade,  the 
output  of  Pentelikon  marble  was  a  continually  increasing 
one.  Blasting,  with  its  accompanying  large  proportion  of 
waste,  was  generally  resorted  to  for  the  extraction  of 
stone,  and  the  roads  from  the  quarry  were  in  bad  con- 
dition ;  and  when  a  further  period  of  trade  depression  set 
in,  the  quarrying  of  marble  was  well-nigh  abandoned.  In 
1897  the  Anglo-Greek  Marble  Company,  now  known  as 
Marmor  Limited,  was  formed,  with  a  capital  of  £350,000, 
to  purchase  the  quarrying  rights  on  Mount  Pentelicus 
and  elsewhere  in  Greece,  and  develop  the  quarries  on 
systematic  lines.  Railways  have  been  laid  down,  roads 
constructed,  and  modern  appliances  for  quarrying  utilised 
to  the  full,  with  the  result  that  Pentelikon  marble  is  now 
known  and  used  both  in  the  leading  cities  of  Europe  and 
the  United  States.  The  company  has  also  secured  the 
freeholds  of  the  marble  deposits  in  Paros,  Tinos,  Skyros, 
Naxos,  Eubcea,  etc.,  and  may  be  correctly  described 
as  being  the  largest  individual  firm  of  marble  quarry 
owners  in  Europe. 

Reference  has  already  been  made  to  the  use  of 
Pentelikon  marble  for  building  purposes.  The  coloured 
varieties  owned  by  the  company  are  of  no  less  importance 
for  their  decorative  effect.  Greek  Cippolino,  Tinos,  and 
the  varieties  of  Skyros,  are  all  of  them  marbles  of  excep- 
tional beauty ;  and  when  to  these  are  added  the  products 
of  the  Rosso  Antico  *  and  Verde  Antico  quarries,  it  is 


*  Marmor    Limited    also    own    and   work   extensive    deposits   of 
Rosso  Antico  at  Mani,  Laconia. 


88 


MAKBLE  AND  MARBLE  WORKING. 


PLATE  IV. 


S.EYROS     No.    HA.    (GRECIAN     ARCHIPELAGO) 


[To  face  p.  89. 


DECORATIVE  EFFECT  OF  GREEK  MARBLES.    89 

probable  that  Greek  marbles  will  take  an  even  more 
prominent  place  in  the  decorative  architecture  of  the 
future  than  has  obtained  in  the  past.  The  yield  of  all  the 
varieties  is  prolific,  the  quarrying  methods  are  of  the  best, 
and  the  facilities  for  the  supply  of  the  material  are  most 
complete.  Considerable  stocks  of  all  of  the  marbles 
mentioned  are  maintained  not  only  at  the  quarries,  but  in 
London  and  various  European  centres,  so  that  supplies  are 
readily  available  for  all  ordinary  demands. 

One  of  the  advantages  claimed  for  Greek  marbles  is 
that  they  are  of  themselves  sufficient  for  the  highest^ 
decorative  effect.  The  colouring  of  the  respective  marbles 
blends  in  a  harmonious  manner,  and  an  effect  of  richness 
is  produced  by  their  use  unattainable  in  any  other 
medium.  The  hold  that  other  varieties  have  obtained, 
however,  is  too  great  to  be  easily  overcome,  and  much 
remains  to  be  done  ere  the  Greek  productions  will  fill  the 
position  desired  by  their  proprietors. 

The  exploitation  of  Greek  marbles  will  probably  have 
a  considerable  effect  on  the  British  marble  industry.  Not 
only  is  British  capital  mainly  engaged  in  working  the 
quarries,  but  the  material  is,  on  account  of  the  conditions 
governing  its  transport,  as  readily  obtainable  in  British  as 
in  French,  Italian,  or  Belgian  ports,  and  at  at  least  equal 
cost-  The  quarry  owners  are  not  workers  of  marble,  apart 
from  the  securing  of  blocks  to  required  sizes,  and,  given 
slight  encouragement,  the  development  in  the  working  of 
the  many  varieties  of  Greek  marble  in  Great  Britain 
should,  apart  from  its  use  for  constructional  purposes, 
be  considerable, 


90 


CHAPTER   IX. 

Sources  of  Production  :  Various. 

WHILE  valuable  deposits  of  marble  are  known  to  exist  in 
various  parts  of  the  world,  the  conditions  governing  their 
production  and  transport  are  such  that  many  of  them  are 
not  commercially  available,  and  the  interest  taken  in  them 
is,  from  the  marble  worker's  and  user's  standpoint, 
academic  rather  than  practical.  This  will  apply  to  a 
number  of  German  marbles  ;  the  deposits  in  the  Ural 
Mountains ;  the  marbles  of  Asia  Minor,  India,  Persia,  and 
Egypt ;  also  to  many  of  our  Colonial  marbles,  which, 
though  valuable  from  the  local  architects'  standpoint,  are 
of  no  commercial  interest  until  they  enter  into  active 
competition  with  varieties  at  present  supplied. 

The  European  countries,  in  addition  to  those  already 
referred  to  as  producing  marble  for  British  use,  are 
Spain,  Portugal,  Switzerland,  Austria,  Norway,  and  Sweden. 
These,  with  small  quantities  from  America,  constitute  our 
available  sources  of  supply, 

Spain. — The  marble  deposits  of  Spain  are  known  to 
be  of  great  variety  and  richness,  but  few  of  them  are 
quarried  for  even  local  requirements.  Of  the  forty-two 
varieties  identified  as  having  been  used  in  Imperial  Rome, 
four  were  of  Spanish  origin,  and  fragments  of  marble  of 
native  origin  have  been  discovered  among  the  ruins  of 
ancient  Merida,  which  was  built  B.C.  28.  The  uses  of 
marble  were  known  and  realised  in  Moorish  architecture, 
and  reference  to  work  of  the  Middle  Ages  shows  that  at 


SPANISH  MARBLES.  91 

one  time  the  industry  must  have  been  in  a  flourishing 
condition.  It  has  been  stated  that  the  Mosque  of  Cordova, 
erected  by  Caliph  Abdoulrahman  III.,  is  ornamented  with 
1,200  marble  columns,  and  that  the  vault  of  the  Toledo 
Theatre  is  supported  on  350  marble  columns,  the  greater 
number  of  which  are  of  Spanish  origin.*  These,  together 
with  the  many  examples  of  ecclesiastical  architecture  in 
the  principal  cities  of  Spain,  give  some  idea  of  the  extent 
of  the  industry  in  bygone  days.  Little  is  done  in  this 
direction  now.  With  the  exception  of  an  occasional  block 
of  Spanish  Brocatelle,  a  small  quantity  of  red  marble  from 
La  Bouceau,  and  a  brown  marble  of  recent  introduction  to 
which  the  name  of  St.  Katherine  has  been  given,  Spanish 
marbles  are,  so  far  as  the  British  market  is  concerned,  a 
negligible  quantity.  The  rouge  marbles  of  St.  Sebastian 
and  Carrica  are  being  introduced  on  the  Continent,  but 
have  not,  up  to  the  time  of  writing,  been  used  in  this 
country  to  any  considerable  extent. 

The  only  development  of  interest  that  is  taking  place  is 
the  exploitation  of  the  white  marble  deposits  in  the  Sierra 
Felabres,  near  Almeira.  This  formation  is  of  great  extent, 
and  is  described  by  Don  Vincente  Cuervo,  of  Madrid,  as 
"  another  Carrara  as  yet  in  a  virgin  state."  The  deposits 
cover  a  large  area  and  are  of  great  depth.  Until  1905 
only  a  few  communal  properties  near  Cobdar  and  Macael, 
the  right  to  work  which  belonged  to  the  local  inhabitants, 
were  being  worked ;  but  a  British  company  was  formed  in 
June,  1906,  under  the  title  of  "  Spanish  Marbles  Limited," 
with  £25,000  capital,  to  take  over  and  develop  the 
principal  marble  deposits  in  the  district,  and  to  apply 

*  "  Marble  and  Marble  Workers,"  p.  73. 


92 


MAKBLE   AND   MARBLE  WORKING. 


3  ^ 


PORTUGUESE   MARBLES.  93 

modern  methods  of  extracting  and  working  the  marble. 
These  have  already  resulted  in  a  considerable  increase  in 
the  marble  produced,  some  8,000  tons  having  been  shipped 
from  Aguilas  in  1907.  With  improved  facilities  for 
quarrying  and  transport  already  in  hand,  the  output,  the 
whole  of  which  is  at  present  taken  for  building  purposes 
at  Madrid,  Barcelona,  and  other  Spanish  towns,  will  soon 
be  sufficient  to  more  than  satisfy  existing  demands.  This 
will  necessitate  outside  markets  being  secured,  and  a  regular 
export  trade  instituted.  In  this  event,  the  British  market 
will  be  one  of  the  first  to  be  sought,  and  the  progress  of  the 
venture  is  being  watched  with  interest.  The  writer  has 
had  opportunities  afforded  him  to  examine  the  material. 
It  is  of  exceptionally  close  texture,  the  crystallisation 
being  slightly  coarser  than  that  of  Sicilian  marble,  while 
it  is  rather  harder.  It  takes  a  good  polish,  the  surface 
closing  well,  and  is  entirely  free  from  veins  or  prominent 
markings.  While  its  hardness  will  probably  militate 
against  its  use  for  carved  work,  the  marble  should  be 
specially  suitable  for  building  and  electrical  purposes,  and 
should  be  generally  available  for  the  various  uses  for 
which  Sicilian  and  Pentelikon  marbles  are  now  employed. 

Portugal. — The  marbles  of  Portugal  are  of  con- 
siderable number,  but  very  few  of  them  are  known 
outside  the  localities  in  which  they  are  found.  The 
marbles  obtained  from  the  Pedro  Furanda  quarries  are 
used  extensively  for  building  purposes  in  Lisbon  and 
neighbourhood,  and  considerable  quantities  of  these 
marbles  have  been  exported  and  been  employed  to 
advantage  for  decorative  purposes.  The  varieties  are 
known  in  England  by  the  names  of  Emperor's  Red, 
Corallo,  and  Vedrasse.  While  the  deposits  of  marble  are 


94        MARBLE  AND   MARBLE   WORKING. 

of  considerable  extent,  the  methods  of  extraction  are 
primitive.  No  machinery  whatever  is  employed,  the 
blocks  being  separated  from  their  beds  by  driving  wedges 
between  the  veins  with  heavy  hand  hammers.  Only  surface 
quarrying  is  in  force,  the  beds  not  being  worked  beyond 
4  m.  (13 '4  ft.)  in  depth.  The  colour  varies  from  a  bright 
coral  red  to  a  creamy  flesh  tint,  the  latter  variety  contain- 
ing large  fossils  of  even  shade.  Blocks  are  obtained  up  to 
6  tons  in  weight,  and  the  marble  is  sound  and  of  good 
appearance.  A  marble  of  handsome  appearance  is  quarried 
near  the  town  of  Villa  Nova  d'Ourem.  The  ground  is 
flesh-coloured,  interspersed  with  broad,  white  crystalline 
veins  and  a  network  of  fine,  red  veins.  The  marble  is 
known  as  St.  Sylvester.  It  is  one  of  the  soundest  of 
coloured  marbles,  can  be  obtained  in  large  blocks,  and 
takes  a  brilliant  polish.  Unfortunately,  the  demand  for 
the  marble  is  insufficient  to  keep  the  quarries  in  constant 
employment.  The  supply,  therefore,  is  irregular. 

Quarrying  methods  generally  throughout  the  Iberian 
Peninsula  are  primitive.  The  wire  saw  is  in  operation  at 
St.  Sebastian,  and  in  the  properties  of  Spanish  Marbles 
Limited  there  is  an  extensive  installation,  both  for 
quarrying  and  working  the  material.  This  includes  wire 
and  diamond  saws,  besides  special  plant  for  sawing 
slabs,  etc.  Elsewhere  wedging  and  hand  drilling  are  the 
ordinary  modes  of  extraction. 

Switzerland. — The  only  Swiss  marble  used  in  Great 
Britain  is  a  variety  of  Cippolino  quarried  at  Saillon,  near 
Saxon,  in  the  Valais  Canton.  Previous  to  the  introduction 
of  Greek  Cippolino,  this  marble  was  in  considerable  demand, 
but  when  the  more  handsome  variety  was  placed  on  the 
market,  Swiss  marble  was  no  longer  in  favour.  Recently 


X 

NORWEGIAN   MARBLES.  95 

the  marble  has  again  come  into  prominence,  and  its  use  is 
on  the  increase.  The  quarries  are  able  to  produce  sound 
column  blocks  in  large  sizes,  but  delay  is  sometimes 
encountered  in  securing  deliveries. 

Austria. — The  best-known  varieties  of  Austrian  marble 
come  from  the  Province  of  Istria.  This  marble  was 
extensively  used  in  the  Venetian  architecture  of  the 
fifteenth  century.  It  is  a  unicoloured  marble  of  a  creamy 
shade,  and  has  been  used  to  some  extent  in  this  country. 
The  porphyries  and  serpentines  of  the  Tyrol  are  -in  large 
demand  for  local  decorative  work. 

Norway. — The  supply  of  Norwegian  marbles  is 
practically  confined  to  the  Dunderland  deposits  occurring 
some  150  miles  north  of  Trondhjem.  The  deposits  extend 
for  considerably  over  a  mile,  and  are  estimated  to  be  over 
1,000  yds.  in  depth.  The  Dunderland  marbles  are  dis- 
tinguishable by  an  exceptionally  coarse  crystallisation 
and  by  the  entire  absence  of  veins,  the  various  colours 
appearing  in  the  formation  occurring  in  stratified  form. 
No  trace  of  lamination  is,  however,  apparent,  and  the 
material  is  exceptionally  sound.  The  colours  range  from 
pink  to  dark  green,  considerable  quantities  of  pure  white 
also  occurring.  It  is  most  difficult  to  work,  and  will  not 
take  an  even  polish.  In  connection  with  this  point,  the 
writer  remembers  an  amusing  incident.  Columns  of 
Norwegian  marble  were  supplied  for  the  interior  decoration 
of  the  pavilion  at  Antwerp  Zoological  Gardens  (1899^ 
1900).  The  City  Fathers  were  not  satisfied  with  their 
appearance,  and  made  inquiries  as  to  what  could  be  done 
to  improve  the  surface  of  the  marble.  The  columns  had 
been  imported  in  a  worked  state,  and  the  trade  generally, 
resenting  this  action,  declined  to  interfere  or  even  make  a 


96 


MAEBLE  AND  MARBLE  WORKING. 


FIG.  37. 


suggestion.  In  the  end  it  was  decided  that  the  columns 
should  be  varnished  ! 

Sweden. — The  only  marbles  in  use  in  Great  Britain 

of  Swedish  origin 
are  quarried  at 
Marmorbruket, 
near  Norrkoping, 
and  have  been 
worked  in  a  small 
way  since  1650. 
Following  the 
adoption  of 
modern  methods 
of  extraction  and 
working  in  1902, 
the  material  has 
been  made  avail- 
able for  general 
use,  and  has  been 
very  favourably 
received.  The 
colour  tone 
ranges  from  light 
sage  green, 
mottled  with 
white,  to  a  some- 
what deeper  tone, 
with  flowered 
markings  of  dark 

olive.  Swedish  Green  is  a  very  sound  marble,  and  is 
procurable  in  large  sizes.  It  is  of  close  texture,  and 
takes  generally  a  good  medium  polish,  without  brilliancy 


A  SWEDISH  MAEBLE  QUARRY,  MARMORBRUKET, 
NEAR  NORRKOPING. 


SWEDISH  MAEBLES.  97 

of  surface ;  some  varieties,  however,  take  a  high  polish. 
The  crushing  strain  of  the  marble  is  given  as  925  kilos 
per  square  cm.,  corresponding  to  5*88  tons  to  the  square 
inch,  and  in  abrasive  tests  a  superiority  of  20  per 
cent,  over  Italian  white  marble  was  shown.  While  not 
of  itself  of  a  strikingly  decorative  appearance,  Swedish 
Green  gives  a  pleasing  effect  when  used  in  interiors, 
and  is  employed  to  considerable  advantage  as  a  foil  to 
marbles  of  great  brilliancy  of  colour  tone.  It  is  especially 
suitable  for  floors  and  places  where  hard-wearing  qualities 
are  required,  and  should  also  be  available  for  building 
purposes  and  exterior  decorative  work.  Its  employment  in 
this  connection  at  the  new  Egyptian  Hall,  Piccadilly,  W. 
(erected  in  1907),  will  be  followed  with  interest.  With 
certain  of  the  earlier  consignments  of  this  marble  a 
tendency  to  fade  on  exposure  to  a  strong  light  was 
apparent.  The  quality  of  the  marble  has,  however,  im- 
proved with  the  greater  depth  at  which  the  quarries  are 
worked,  and  this  defect  has  practically  disappeared.  A 
pleasing  contrast  can  be  obtained,  when  using  Swedish 
Green,  by  having  block  sawn  in  opposite  directions — with 
and  across  the  natural  bed.  Previous  to  1906  the  marble 
was  extracted  by  drill  and  wedge  methods  ;  a  wire  saw 
installation  has  since  been  erected,  and  is  in  regular  use. 
Pneumatic  machinery  is  largely  used  for  the  subsequent 
working  of  the  material. 

The  United  States  of  America. — The  marbles 
raised  in  the  United  States  of  America  are  of  great  variety. 
The  material  is  used  to  a  much  greater  extent  for  building 
purposes  than  is  the  case  in  Great  Britain,  partly  on 
account  of  the  climatic  conditions  being  generally  more 
favourable  to  such  use,  and  partly  for  the  reason  that 

H 


98         MAEBLE  AND   MAKBLE   WORKING. 

American  architects  are  less  hampered  by  considerations 
of  first  cost  than  are  their  British  compeers.  Buildings 
containing  close  on  a  million  feet  cube  of  marble  are  not 
uncommon,  and  the  quarrying  and  working  of  marble  is 
consequently  an  important  industry. 

The  principal  marble-producing  areas  are  Butlarid, 
Fowler,  and  Proctor  (Vermont),  where  a  variety  of  white 
marble,  somewhat  similar  in  formation  to  Sicilian,  is 
raised,  also  a  light  blue  marble,  similar  in  appearance 
to  Italian  Dove,  as  well  as  several  varieties  of  veined 
marble  ;  Dover  (New  York) ;  West  Grove  (Pennsylvania) ; 
Tescar  and  Cockeysville  (Maryland) ;  Knoxville  and 
Chattanooga  (Tennessee)  ;  Birmingham  and  Sylacagua 
(Alabama) ;  and  Tate  (Georgia).  Onyx  marble  is 
obtained  from  the  States  of  Arizona,  Wyoming,  and 
California. 

The  only  American  marble  (apart  from  onyx)  used  to 
any  appreciable  extent  in  this  country  is  a  variety  of 
Vermont  marble  known  as  "  Listavenna."  This  was  first 
introduced  by  Messrs.  Burke  &  Co.  for  the  interior  decora- 
tion of  the  Criterion  Restaurant  in  1900,  and  has  since 
been  employed  in  several  buildings  in  the  Metropolis.  One 
of  the  best  instances  of  its  use  is  in  the  main  office  of 
Messrs.  Dewar's  buildings,  Haymarket,  S.W.  (1908),  the 
large  wall  panels  being  of  this  material  (see  Fig.  69).  The 
light  brown  marble  used  in  the  dado  at  the  Criterion 
Restaurant  is  also  of  American  origin. 

The  onyx  marbles  obtained  from  Yavapui  County, 
Arizona,  rank  high  among  decorative  materials.  The 
formation  is  described  by  Dr.  G.  P.  Merrill  as  "  a  carbonate 
converted  into  a  more  or  less  hydrated  oxide  by  the  action 
of  percolating  solutions,  whereby  the  green  is  changed  to 


ARIZONA   ONYX.  99 

red,  brown,  or  amber-yellow  colours  in  all  shades.  ...  All 
stages  of  the  process  are  seen  at  the  various  openings,  from 
those  in  which  the  green  stone  is  covered  with  a  mere 
crust,  and  scarcely  sufficiently  veined  to  give  a  desired 
variety,  to  those  in  which  scarcely  a  trace  of  the  original 
green  remains,  but  the  whole  block  is  a  red-brown  colour 
in  varying  shades.  .  .  .  The  colours  are  rich  but  not  gaudy, 
and  when  properly  prepared,  are  capable  of  effects  both 
unique  and  beautiful.  There  is  in  the  National  Museum  at 
Washington  a  stone  of  brown  and  red  colour  so  cut  with 
the  grain  as  to  resemble,  in  a  wonderful  degree,  a  piece 
of  antique  tapestry.  The  details  of  its  structure  are 
intricate  in  the  extreme,  and,  since  what  is  to  be  seen  by 
a  careful  study  of  them  depends  almost  entirely  on  the 
vividness  of  one's  imagination,  the  writer  drops  the 
subject,  to  be  taken  up,  it  may  be,  by  those  more  gifted 
in  imagination  or  in  the  faculty  of  description.  .  .  . 
The  compact,  highly  lustrous  green  stone,  with  a  surface 
almost  as  close  as  enamel,  and  with  its  veins  and 
dashes  of  red  and  brown,  is,  however,  the  most  desirable 
of  all."* 

Arizona  (Yava)  Onyx  was  introduced  into  Great 
Britain  in  1904,  and  has  been  received  with  favour. 
While  the  supply  was  irregular  in  the  first  instance, 
large  stocks  of  the  material  are  now  maintained,  and 
there  is  little  doubt  that  this  medium  of  decoration 
will  be  used  to  a  large  extent  as  it  becomes  better 
known. 

The  only  public  building  in  this  country,  so  far  as  the 
writer  is  aware,  where  Arizona  Onyx  has  been  employed 

*  "  Stones  for  Building  and  Decoration,"  p.  265. 

H   2 


100       MARBLE  AND   MAKBLE  WORKING. 


MEXICAN  ONYX.  101 

is  the  National  Provincial  Bank  ibail&ng  ;at  Aberystwith 
(see  Fig.  39).  It  has  also  been  used  for  the  decoration  of 
several  private  house  interiors^  , 

Wyoming  Onyx  is  of  a  deep  brown  colour,  with 
markings  of  lighter  shade,  having  some  resemblance  to 
large  fish  scales.  Californian  Onyx  is  of  light  green 
ground,  sometimes  mottled  with  white,  and  with  red  and 
amber- yellow  veins  traversing  the  surface. 

The  principal  deposits  of  Mexican  Onyx  in  ordinary 
use  are  situated  in  the  district  lying  south-east  from 
Puebla,  the  finest  varieties  being  obtained  from  the 
La  Pedrara  quarry,  some  20  miles  from  Puebla,  and 
at  St.  Antonia,  near  Vera  Cruz.  The  opening  up  of 
the  country  has,  however,  brought  other  deposits  into 
prominence.  Beds  of  onyx  have  been  located  near 
Magdalena,  on  the  Mexican  and  Southern  Eailway, 
surpassing  both  for  size  and  quality  anything  previously 
obtained.  The  colour  tone  ranges  from  a  deep  green  to 
a  light  clouded  green  of  great  delicacy,  and  the  veinings 
from  red  to  bright  yellow,  the  whole  producing  a 
decorative  effect  of  extreme  richness.  The  sizes  of  blocks 
that  can  be  obtained  are  only  limited  by  the  facilities 
available  for  transport,  and  the  entire  deposit  is  of  high 
grade.  Several  blocks  of  this  material  were  on  exhibit 
at  the  Mexican  Exhibition  held  in  the  Crystal  Palace 
in  1908,  and  arrangements  have  since  been  made  for 
exporting  the  material  to  this  country,  blocks  up  to 
60  cubic  ft.  in  dimension  being,  at  the  time  of  writing, 
en  route.  The  quarries  are  situated  over  250  miles  from 
the  most  available  seaport  (Santa  Cruz),  and  the  cost 
of  transporting  and  shipping  the  material  will  con- 
siderably add  to  its  cost.  Brazilian  Onyx  is  of  great 


102       MARBLE  AND   MARBLE  WORKING. 

beauty. \: :  The  ground-colour  is  deep  green,  the  surface 
being  marked  .with  ' brilliant  red  veins.  All  the  varieties 
are  ^  translucent/  —While,  the  greater  part  of  the  output 
of  good  quality  onyx  is  exported  to  the  United  States 
of  America,  all  the  varieties  are  used  to  no  inconsiderable 
extent  both  on  the  Continent  and  in  this  country. 

Generally  speaking,  American  marbles,  the  varieties  of 
onyx  excepted,  are  not  at  present  commercially  available 
for  use  in  Great  Britain.  There  are  few  varieties  that  can 
compare  for  decorative  effect  with  the  marbles  of  Greece, 
Algeria,  the  French  Pyrenees,  Italy,  or  Brittany.  The 
cost  of  quarrying  is  much  higher  than  that  prevailing  in 
Continental  centres,  and  when  transport  charges  are 
added,  the  prices  at  which  blocks  can  be  secured  are 
so  high  as  to  make  competition  extremely  difficult. 
Consequently,  where  American  marble  is  used,  it  is 
mainly  on  account  of  some  delicacy  of  tone  found  in  a 
particular  variety,  and  for  which  the  architect,  or  his 
client,  is  prepared  to  pay.  The  home  demand  for 
marble,  both  for  building  and  decorative  purposes,  is 
sufficiently  large  not  only  to  absorb  the  American 
output,  but  also  to  draw  largely  on  European  quarrying 
centres  for  further  supplies.  Owing,  however,  to  the 
high  tariff  rates  that  are  in  force  on  manufactured  or 
partly  manufactured  work  (see  pp.  151-2),  importations 
into  the  United  States,  works  of  art  excepted,  are 
mainly  restricted  to  marble  in  block. 


103 


CHAPTER    X. 

Sources  of  Production  :   Marbles  of  the  United  Kingdom  and 
British  Colonies. 

THE  marbles  raised  in  Great  Britain  are  of  great  variety, 
and,  with  the  exception  of  white  marbles,  are  capable  of 
being  produced  in  sufficient  quantity  to  satisfy  the  greater 
part  of  our  requirements.  They  have  been  worked  con- 
siderably in  bygone  days,  when  marble  was  much  less 
used  than  is  the  case  to-day.  Thus,  Hollingshed,  writing 
in  1577,  states:  "Many  marbles  are  there  in  England, 
but  chiefly  one  in  Staffordshire.  Of  white  marble  also  we 
have  store.  The  black  marble,  spotted  with  green,  is  none 
of  the  vilest  sort."  Hutchings,  in  his  "  History  of  Dorset," 
written  in  1724,  mentions  that  "in  Purbeck  there  was 
formerly  dug  marbles  of  several  colours — blue,  red, 
spotted,  and  grey,  but  chiefly  the  latter — all  of  a  coarse 
sort."  Polwhele,  in  his  "  History  of  Devonshire,"  states 
that  "  there  are  twenty-four  known  varieties  of  Devon 
marble  "  ;  and  Sir  Henry  de  la  Beche,  in  his  "  Report  on 
Devon,  Cornwall,  and  West  Somerset,"  says  :  "  Marbles  of 
very  great  variety  may  be  obtained,  though  tints  of  grey 
chiefly  prevail,  and  they  deserve  to  be  far  more  extensively 
employed  than  they  have  hitherto  been  ;  a  greater  demand 
would  cause  more  varieties  to  be  worked." 

One  of  the  reasons  why  British  marbles  are  not 
employed  to  a  greater  extent  may  be  briefly  referred  to. 
The  principal  sources  of  supply  of  worked  marble  have, 
until  recently,  been  Belgium  and  France,  and,  with 
material  ordinarily  in  use  in  these  countries  readily 


104       MAEBLE  AND  MARBLE  WORKING. 

obtainable,  it  has  not  been  in  the  interests  of  foreign 
manufacturers  to  introduce  British  marbles.  Besides,  the 
demand  being  a  comparatively  limited  one,  British 
quarry  owners  have  not  been  in  the  habit  either  of 
quarrying  on  modern  lines  (a  system  that  is  only 
economical  where  there  is  a  constant  demand),  or  of 
accumulating  stocks  from  which  supplies  might  be 
obtained.  There  are  many  deposits  of  marble  of  good 
quality  and  handsome  appearance  that  are  only  worked 
for  two  or  three  months  in  the  course  of  the  year ;  hence, 
when  work  is  contemplated,  a  marble  is  specified  that 
can  be  supplied  in  less  time  than  would  be  required  for 
one  of  British  origin. 

Another  point  that  assists  in  curtailing  production  is 
the  excessive  freight  on  our  home  railways.  The  cost  of 
bringing  marble  in  block  from  either  Derbyshire  or 
Devonshire  to  London  (quarry  to  railway  depot)  is  higher 
than  for  bringing  it  either  from  Italy  or  Belgium  (quarry 
to  port),  although  in  the  latter  instance  the  railway 
mileage  amounts  to  considerably  more  than  half  the 
distance  mentioned ;  and  when  to  this  is  added  the  amount 
of  waste  on  which  carriage  has  to  be  paid,  due  to 
inefficient  quarrying  methods,  it  will  be  seen  that  the 
British  marble  industry  is  severely  handicapped.  For  all 
practical  purposes,  the  trade  has  been  in  the  hands  of 
foreign  firms  (Belgian  and  French)  supplying  indirectly 
through  British  houses,  who  have  recommended  for  use 
the  marbles  that  were  best  available,  i.e.,  those  of  which 
they  either  held  considerable  stocks  or  had  partial  or 
entire  control.  How  best  to  alter  these  conditions,  and 
foster  a  home  industry  for  which  we  possess  distinct 
natural  advantages,  is  a  matter  of  considerable  difficulty. 


PLATE  VI. 


PRINCE    ROCK   GREY 


DEVONSHIRE     MARBLES. 


[To  face  p.  105. 


DEVONSHIKE   MARBLES.  105 

A  tariff  on  worked  marble  has  been  suggested  as  being 
likely  to  encourage  not  only  the  working  of  marble  in  this 
country,  but  also  the  development  of  our  native  resources. 
While  opinions  are  divided  on  this  point,  it  is  significant 
to  note  that  the  great  development  that  has  occurred  in 
the  quarrying  industry  of  the  United  States  of  America 
has  followed  the  imposition  of  a  tariff  on  imported 
material,*  varying  in  amount  with  the  proportion  of  work 
that  has  been  expended  on  its  preparation,  and  that 
similar  progress  is  taking  place  in  Germany,  the  last  of 
the  European  countries  to  adopt  a  protectionist  regime, 
although  in  the  latter  instance  unworked  stone  is  admitted 
free  of  duty. 

The  principal  marble-producing  areas  in  the  British 
Isles  are  Devonshire,  Derbyshire,  and  Staffordshire  in 
England,  Sutherlandshire  and  the  Western  Hebrides  in 
Scotland,  and  Gal  way  and  Kilkenny  in  Ireland. 

The  marbles  of  Devonshire  possess  a  beauty  dis- 
tinctively their  own.  They  occur  mainly  in  the  Middle 
and  Upper  Devonian  Period  of  Paleozoic  time,  and  are" 
among  the  older  of  the  marble  formations.  The  varieties 
produced  range  from  light  pink  and  yellow  to  dark  grey, 
almost  black,  some  of  the  red  varieties  being  of  great 
brilliance.  The  silent  evidence  respecting  their  age  pre- 
sented by  the  fossil  markings  of  certain  of  the  varieties  is 
of  interest  both  to  geologists  and  paleontologists.  The 
district  from  which  the  marbles  are  obtained  ranges  from 
Newton  Abbot  to  Plymouth,  and  inland  to  Chudleigh  and 
Ashburton.  A  grey  marble  streaked  with  red  is  found 

*  The  tariff  on  rough  marble  entering  the  United  States  is  65  cents 
per  short  ton,  or  less  than  2%d.  per  foot  cube.  For  further  particulars 
respecting  the  American  tariff,  see  pp.  151—2. 


106       MARBLE   AND   MARBLE   WORKING. 

at  Ipplepen,  and  a  more  handsome  variety  at  Silverleigh ; 
a  light  red  variety  at  Stonycombe,  near  Kingskerswell ;  a 
bright  red  at  Ogwell ;  the  Petitors,  yellow,  clouded  and 
grey,  at  Babbacombe,  near  Torquay  ;  a  dark  grey,  with 
red  and  white  veins,  at  Ashburton,  with  a  somewhat 

FIG.  40. 


A  BEITISH  MARBLE  QUARRY,  ASHBURTON,  DEVONSHIRE. 

lighter  variety  at  Chudleigh  ;  a  rich-coloured  red,  with 
large  fossils,  at  Radford ;  and  several  red  and  grey  marbles 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  Plymouth.  These  include  the 
White  and  Crimson-veined  Black  ;  Devon  Sienna,  the 
Spangled  Devon  Spars,  and  Favositidse,  with  its  fine  fossil 


DERBYSHIRE   MARBLES.  107 

markings.  The  methods  of  extracting  marble  from  the 
beds  are  of  a  primitive  nature.  Blasting  is  often  resorted 
to,  with  the  result  that  the  force  of  the  explosives  used 
has  a  tendency  to  shatter  the  stone,  causing  vents  to  be 
developed  when  it  is  sawn  into  slabs.  This  gives  to 
Devonshire  marbles  a  reputation  for  unsoundness  which  is 
largely  undeserved.  With  improved  quarrying  appliances, 
it  is  possible  to  secure  sound  blocks  of  good  quality,  and 
the  material  only  requires  to  be  wider  known  to  meet 
with  the  success  it  deserves. 

The  principal  Derbyshire  marbles  are  Hopton-Wood 
and  Derby  Fossil,  both  quarried  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Wirks worth.  Hopton-Wood  is  a  unicoloured  marble, 
ranging  in  shade  from  a  creamy  white  to  a  medium-toned 
grey.  It  can  be  obtained  in  large  sizes,  blocks  of  20  tons 
and  over  being  not  uncommon.  Birdseye  marble  is 
quarried  in  the  same  locality.  The  colour  ranges  from 
grey  to  dark  brown,  interspersed  with  grey  crinoidal  frag- 
ments. Derby  Fossil  is  a  dark  grey  marble,  containing  a 
large  number  of  encrinites  lying  at  all  angles.  Black 
marble  is  quarried  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Ashford.  The 
beds  are  shallow,  and  the  marble,  while  being  of  excep- 
tionally close  texture,  is  much  more  expensive  than  the 
Belgian  variety,  besides  being  more  difficult  to  work.  A 
marble  known  as  Rosewood  is  quarried  near  Ashford, 
the  name  being  given  it  on  account  of  the  peculiarity 
of  its  markings.  The  Derbyshire  marbles  are  chiefly  of 
Carboniferous  Age. 

Marble  from  the  lower  beds  of  the  Hopton-Wood 
formation  is  sometimes  used  for  exterior  work.  The  close 
texture  of  the  material  offers  a  high  resistance  to  smoky 
atmospheres,  and  the  surface  is  practically  non-absorbent 


&       iH 

H       £ 


It 

W     so 

02         O 

-      •— 

Q    - 


DERBYSHIRE  MARBLES.  109 

and  unaffected  by  local  chemical  influences.  An  instance 
of  this  may  be  observed  in  the  York  City  and  County 
Bank  building,  situate  in  the  centre  of  Sheffield,  and 
erected  in  1900-1.  The  elevation  above  the  first-floor 
level  is  executed  in  Hop  ton- Wood,  and  a  careful 
examination  of  the  exterior  shows  no  trace  either  of 
disintegration  or  of  absorption  of  atmospherical  impurities. 
The  colour  tone  is  retained  throughout,  and  the  building 
presents  a  marked  contrast  to  others  in  the  immediate 
vicinity,  the  fronts  of  which  have  become  blackened 
from  exposure.  The  material  appears  to  be  most  suitable 
for  use  for  building  purposes  in  large  centres  of  population, 
where  the  majority  of  building  stones  either  disintegrate 
or  speedily  present  a  grimy  appearance. 

With  regard  to  the  weathering  properties  of  Hopton- 
Wood,  the  front  of  the  Moot  Hall,  Wirks worth,  contains 
three  panels  (two  of  them  carved  in  relief),  dating  from 
1818.  The  detail  is  as  clear  as  when  first  executed,  and 
the  characteristic  markings  of  the  marble  are  readily 
identifiable  from  a  photograph  (see  Fig.  41).  The 
material  has  been  employed  in  London  for  the  pedestal 
of  the  Gordon  Memorial  in  Trafalgar  Square,  W.C., 
erected  in  1905,  and  for  window-sills,  jambs,  and  heads 
at  47,  Bel  grave  Square,  S.W.  At  the  time  of  writing 
it  appears  to  have  weathered  well.  Hopton-Wood  is  a 
suitable  material  for  interior  work,  whether  constructional 
or  decorative,  being  available  either  for  masonry  or  as  a 
veneer  of  thin  slabs.  The  distinction  between  the  light 
and  dark  varieties  is  sufficiently  pronounced  to  afford 
a  pleasing  contrast,  and  as  the  surface  does  not  take  a 
brilliant  polish,  the  subdued  effect  secured  by  its  use  is 
chaste  rather  than  ornate. 


110       MAEBLE   AND   MARBLE  WORKING. 

Alabaster  is  found  in  Derbyshire  and  Staffordshire, 
the  principal  deposits  being  at  Fauld,  near  Tutbury.  The 
Derbyshire  deposits  are  mainly  worked  for  the  manufacture 
of  plaster  of  Paris,  and  as  sound,  well-figured  blocks  are 
secured,  they  are  set  aside  for  sale  for  purposes  of 
decoration. 

FIG.  42. 


VIEW  IN  IONA  MAEBLE  QUAEEY,"  WESTEEN  HEBEIDES. 

The  marbles  of  lona  and  Tiree  are  among  the  latest 
British  productions — that  is,  for  general  use.  The  colour 
tone  of  the  former  is  a  delicate  shade  of  green,  with  white 
markings,  and  as  a  decorative  medium  it  is  most  effective. 
Tiree  marble  shows  a  variety  of  colouring,  from  dark 
olive-green  to  brilliant  red.  Both  of  these  marbles  are 
of  serpentinous  formation. 

Red  and  green  varieties  of  serpentine  are  quarried  in 


BRITISH  MARBLES.  Ill 

the  neighbourhood  of  the  Lizard  Point,  Cornwall.  The 
material  presents  a  handsome  appearance  when  polished, 
and  at  one  time  was  in  great  demand.  A  variety  of 
greenish-brown  serpentine,  with  small  red  markings,  is 
quarried  at  Polyphant.  It  can  be  obtained  in  medium- 
sized  blocks,  and  is  one  of  the  soundest  of  the  Cornish 
decorative  stones. 

Other  varieties  of  marble  produced  in  Great  Britain 
are  Frosterley,  a  dark  grey  fossiliferous  marble  of  attrac- 
tive appearance,  quarried  at  Harehope,  Durham  ;  Purbeck, 
a  light  green  shell  marble,  quarried  near  Swanage  ; 
Petworth,  or  Bethesden,  a  blue-grey  shell  marble,  quarried 
near  Petworth  and  at  East  Grinstead,  Sussex  ;  Anglesea, 
a  brown  veined  marble,  quarried  at  Penmon,  near  Beau- 
maris  ;  Lucerta,  a  dark  grey  unicoloured  marble,  quarried 
at  Keinton  Mandeville,  Somerset ;  and  Furness,  a  sound 
marble  of  similar  appearance  to  Hopton-Wood,  quarried 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  Dalton-in-Furness,  Lancashire. 
Besides  these  there  are  a  number  of  marbles  in  various 
parts  of  the  country  (including  a  deposit  of  white  marble 
of  good  quality  in  Sutherlandshire)  that  are  undeveloped 
for  lack  of  enterprise,  or  that  are  only  worked  at  rare 
intervals  for  local  purposes,  and  that  are  barely  known 
outside  the  districts  where  they  are  raised.  For  instance, 
there  are  in  the  Museum  of  Practical  Geology,  Jermyn 
Street,  S.W.  (a  building  the  contents  of  which  deserve 
far  more  attention  from  marble  users  and  workers  than 
at  present  obtains),  two  inlaid  table-tops  containing  a 
number  of  varieties  of  Devonshire  and  Staffordshire 
marbles  of  great  beauty.  Many  of  these  exist  in  work- 
able deposits,  but  their  production  has  lapsed,  and  valuable 
material  is  thus,  for  the  time  being,  lost  to  the  world. 


112        MAEBLE  AND  MARBLE  WORKING. 

FIG.  43. 


FROSTERLEY  MARBLE  COLUMNS,  NORWICH  BOMAN  CATHOLIC  CHURCH. 


MARBLE   FROM   IRELAND.  113 

Irish  Marbles. — The  marbles  produced  in  County 
Cork  vary  in  colour  from  light  red  with  white  mottlings 
to  a  speckled  brown  with  small  white  veinings.  Cork  or 
Victoria  Red  is  extensively  used  in  Great  Britain,  and  was 
selected  for  lining  the  staircases  at  the  recent  extensions 
of  the  London  Stock  Exchange.  Black  marble  is  found 
in  County  Kilkenny,  which  also  produces  a  fossil  marble. 
Kilkenny  marbles  are  in  considerable  demand  for  local 
building  and  monumental  purposes.  The  fossil  marble  has 
also  been  exported  to  a  small  extent. 

The  serpentinous  deposits  at  Connemara  are  in  great 
demand.  These  comprise  some  of  the  most  beautiful 
varieties  of  green  marble  existing,  and  have  been  used  to 
a  large  extent  both  in  this  country  and  in  the  United 
States.  The  shades  of  green  vary  from  that  of  olive  to 
light  sage,  and  the  marble  is  in  parts  translucent.  The 
principal  quarries  are  situate  at  Recess,  Streamstown,  and 
Lissoughter.  The  best  blocks  are  secured  from  the  Recess 
quarry,  a  large  proportion  of  the  product  being  exported 
to  the  United  States  of  America.  Extensive  deposits 
of  Irish  Green  have  recently  been  located  at  Cloonacarton, 
near  Recess,  Co.  Galway.  The  marble  appears  equal  to 
the  best  of  the  Connemara  productions,  and,  at  the 
time  of  writing,  arrangements  are  being  made  to  place 
it  on  the  market.  The  reports  respecting  the  formations 
are  of  a  highly  favourable  nature,  and  in  the  event  of 
their  being  realised,  it  will  be  possible  for  the  highest 
quality  material  to  be  obtained  at  about  one-half  the 
prices  at  present  prevailing.  There  are  also  considerable 
deposits  of  black  marble  obtainable  from  County  Galway. 

Colonial  Marbles. — With  regard  to  marbles  from 
British  Colonies,  the  conditions  prevailing  have  not,  in 

I 


114       MARBLE  AND  MARBLE  WORKING. 

the  majority  of  instances,  been  such  as  to  favour  their 
production.  Canada,  India,  Natal,  Rhodesia,  Australia, 
etc.,  are  all  of  them  rich  with  marble  deposits  ;  but  the 
development  of  this  section  of  mineral  wealth  has  been 
but  slow,  and,  at  the  time  of  writing,  Colonial  marbles 
are  not  available  for  use  in  Great  Britain.  It  is  not 
practicable  in  any  case  to  obtain  worked  material,  and,  in 
several  instances,  the  transport  charges  alone  on  rough 
blocks  would  be  sufficient  to  prevent  Colonial  products 
coming  into  competition  with  those  from  sources  of 
production  nearer  to  hand.  There  are  possibilities  ahead, 
however,  in  regard  to  marbles  both  from  Canada  and 
Australia,  extensive  deposits  having  been  located  within 
recent  years  in  accessible  districts. 

Canada. — The  neighbourhood  of  Philipsburg,  Mississi- 
quoi  Co.  (Ontario),  produces  calcareous,  dolomitic,  and 
serpentinous  marbles,  many  of  which  are  of  attractive 
appearance  and  obtainable  in  large  blocks.  The  forma- 
tion is  similar  to  that  of  the  Green  Mountains  of 
Vermont,  of  which  it  is  probably  an  outcrop  extending 
over  the  Canadian  border.  Several  varieties  of  marble 
are  found  at  Bancroft,  Hastings  Co.  (Ontario),  and  a 
bright  red  marble,  with  prominent  crystalline  veining, 
is  obtained,  with  others,  at  Brome  (Quebec).  Transport 
charges  are  no  higher  than  from  many  of  our  Continental 
sources  of  supply  ;  and,  given  some  slight  encouragement, 
the  marbles  of  the  Dominion  should  be  available  for  some 
of  the  requirements  of  the  Mother  Country.  A  Canadian 
(Ontario)  sodalite  was  introduced  in  1905,  and  has  met 
with  a  favourable  reception.  The  colour  of  the  material 
is  a  brilliant  blue,  occasionally  interspersed  with  thin  red 
veins  and  spots.  The  beds  lie  in  immediate  contact  with 


PLATE  VII. 


ALO:JITE    (ONTARIO,   CANADA). 

THB   ONLY  COLONIAL  MARBLE   IN   USE   IN   GRBAT  BRITAIN. 


[To  face  p.  114. 


MAKBLE  FKOM  CANADA.       115 

a  granite  deposit,  spurs  of  which,  together  with  small 
pockets  of  black  mica,  project  into  the  sodalite  formation. 
As  a  result,  the  proportion  of  waste  and  difficulties 
encountered  in  working  the  material  are  largely  increased, 
making  its  cost  prohibitive  for  any  but  the  highest  class 
work.  The  name  "  Alomite "  has  been  given  to  the 
material  in  compliment  to  Mr.  Charles  Allom  (White, 
Allom  &  Co.),  who  first  introduced  it  into  Great  Britain. 

India. — Several  deposits  of  choice  marbles  are  known 
to  exist  within  the  confines  of  the  Indian  Empire,  and 
a  number  of  these  were  utilised  both  for  building  and 
decorative  purposes  in  earlier  periods.  A  concise  account 
of  work  of  this  description  is  given  by  T.  H.  Holland  in 
a  recent  publication  issued  by  the  Government  of  India. 
He  states  :  "  The  Pathans  and  Mughals  utilised  both  the 
Vindhyan  sandstones  of  Central  India  and  the  beds  of 
marble  in  Kajputana  for  building  their  magnificent 
mosques,  palaces,  and  tombs  in  the  cities  of  Northern 
India.  It  is  only  necessary  to  mention  here  Akbar's  city 
of  Fatehpur  Sikri,  where  the  red  and  mottled  sandstone 
of  the  Bhanrer  series  was  used,  and  the  famous  Taj, 
built  mainly  of  white  Makrana  marble,  with  elaborate 
inlaid  work  of  yellow  marble  and  shelly  limestone  from 
Jaisalmer,  onyx  marble  from  the  Salt  Range,  black 
calcareous  shells  from  the  Vindhyans  of  Chitor,  malachite 
from  Jaipur,  cornelians  and  bloodstones  from  the  Deccan, 
and  trap  and  red  jasper  from  the  Gwalior  (Bijawar) 
series."*  While  native  marble  is  still  employed  to  some 
extent,  the  principal  supplies  for  India  are  procured  from 
Great  Britain  and  the  Continent,  and  it  is  most 

*  "  Sketch  of  the  Mineral  Resources  of  India,"  Calcutta,  1908. 

I  2 


116       MARBLE  AND   MAEBLE  WORKING. 

improbable  that  the  Indian  Empire  will  become  a 
contributor  to  British  requirements  of  this  nature. 

South  Africa. — An  extensive  deposit  of  white 
marble  exists  near  Port  Elizabeth  (Natal),  the  material 
being  of  rather  coarse  crystallisation  and  somewhat  soft 
in  working.  Rhodesia  is  reported  to  be  as  rich  in 
marble  as  in  other  of  her  mineral  resources.  While  the 
natural  development  of  these  Colonies  may  result  in  the 
opening  up  of  marble  deposits  for  local  requirements, 
difficulties  of  transport  are  likely  to  effectually  check 
any  further  expansion. 

Australia. — The  principal  development  that  has 
taken  place  in  the  quarrying  and  working  of  Colonial 
marbles  has  occurred  in  New  South  Wales,  where  over 
thirty  deposits  of  good  quality  marble  have  been 
located,  many  of  which  are  being  worked  to  advantage. 
The  greater  number  of  the  marbles  produced  belong  to 
the  variegated  class ;  fossiliferous  and  serpentinous 
varieties  are  also  obtained,  and  the  saccharoidal  deposits 
are  extensive.  A  distinct  advantage  possessed  by 
practically  all  the  varieties  is  their  exceptional  sound- 
ness, it  being  a  rare  occurrence  for  cramping  or  stopping 
to  be  required  in  their  preparation  for  use. 

White  marble  of  compact  texture  and  even  crystallisa- 
tion is  obtained  from  Caloola,  in  the  Rockley  division,  and 
the  material  has  been  used  to  a  considerable  extent  both 
for  constructional  and  decorative  purposes  at  Sydney, 
Melbourne,  and  other  important  Australian  centres  of 
population  ;  while  with  coloured  marbles  the  deposits 
available  are  of  sufficient  extent  to  supply  the  entire 
British  Empire,  could  they  be  placed  on  the  market  to 
advantage.  Some  of  the  varieties  are  of  great  beauty. 


MARBLE  FROM  NEW  SOUTH  WALES.     117 

A  marble  quarried  at  Fernbrook  bears  some  resemblance 
to  Sarancolin  Pyrenees  (described  by  George  P.  Merrill 
as  one  of  the  handsomest  of  decorative  materials),  but  is 
of  richer  appearance  generally ;  Bathurst  produces  a 
variety  equal  to  the  best  quality  Rouge  Jaspe ;  Rylstone 
marble  is  at  least  as  good  as  Grand  Antique  Beige ;  and 
the  Borenore,  Fernbrook,  Kempsey,  Narrabri,  Springhill, 
and  Tamworth  districts  produce  marbles  of  a  highly 
decorative  appearance,  all  of  which  are  used  with  effect 
in  the  buildings  of  the  Commonwealth.  While  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  worked  marble  is  still  imported,  the 
employment  of  the  native  quarried  material  is  on  the 
increase,  and  in  process  of  time  will  doubtless  oust  the 
imported  foreign -worked  article. 

So  far  as  the  exportation  of  marble  to  Great  Britain 
is  concerned,  transport  charges  would  absorb  a  consider- 
able percentage  of  the  cost  of  material  c.i.f.  British  ports. 
This  is  not  an  insuperable  matter,  and  the  difference  in 
the  cost  of  transport  of  marble  from,  say,  the  French 
Pyrenees  or  North  Africa,  and  Australia,  would  not  of 
itself  be  sufficient  to  keep  the  latter  out  of  the  market. 
The  principal  difficulty  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  demand 
for  marble  is  a  comparatively  limited  one,  and  that  new 
varieties  have,  in  the  greater  number  of  cases,  to  displace 
those  already  in  possession  of  the  market,  and  that  can 
be  obtained  at  comparatively  short  notice.  It  is  the 
business  of  the  marble  merchant  to  satisfy  his  customer's 
requirements,  and  it  is  to  be  feared  that  unless  Colonial 
Governments  or  their  representatives  can  induce 
architects  to  employ  their  products,  the  development 
of  any  extensive  trade  from  this  or  any  other  Colonial 
source  will  be  of  extremely  slow  growth.  The 


118       MARBLE   AND   MARBLE   WORKING. 

requirements  of  the  British  Empire  can,  so  far  as 
marble  is  concerned,  be  supplied  from  within  its  borders. 
The  economics  of  business  wiJl  not,  however,  allow  of  a 
searching  for  new  sources  of  supply  that,  while  as  good, 
possibly  better  than  those  already  to  hand,  involve  a 
large  expenditure  of  capital  with  but  remote  prospect  of 
its  return. 


119 
CHAPTER  XL 

Continental  Marble  Working. 

THE  working  of  marble  for  the  greater  number  of  the 
purposes  for  which  it  is  used  is,  generally  speaking,  a 
matter  outside  the  quarry  owner's  concern.  Where  a 
regular  demand  exists  for  particular  classes  of  work  in  a 
similar  material — the  machinery  required  being  of  small 
amount,  and  the  labour  called  for  is  of  the  type  ordinarily 
known  as  unskilled — it  is  possible  for  quarry  owners  to 
work  their  own  products.  Many  quarries,  too,  have 
sawing  machinery  of  a  rude  type  as  a  part  of  their  equip- 
ment, the  proprietors  being  able  by  such  means  to  supply 
dimension  stone  as  well  as  rough  blocks.  For  these  pur- 
poses the  wire  saw,  when  in  use  for  quarrying  purposes, 
is  readily  adaptable. 

With  the  possible  exception  of  certain  groups  of 
quarries  in  Brittany  and  the  French  Pyrenees,  the  supply 
of  sawn  slabs  from  quarrying  localities  direct  is  confined 
to  the  Carrara  district,  where  the  accumulated  experience 
of  generations  of  workers  has  enabled  this  class  of  work  to 
be  done  better  and  cheaper  than  anywhere  else  in  the 
world.  The  exportation  of  sawn  slabs  has,  however, 
been  greatly  restricted  of  recent  years,  owing  to  the 
tariffs  imposed  by  various  countries  on  manufactured 
or  partly  manufactured  material,  sawn  slabs  coming 
within  the  latter  category.  Belgian  marbles  are  also 
imported  into  Great  Britain  in  slab  form  to  some 
extent ;  but  the  demand  for  these  in  an  unworked  state 
is  but  a  small  one,  principally  owing  to  the  reason  that 


120       MAEBLE   AND   MARBLE   WORKING. 

rough  slabs  are  supplied  at  but  little  less  cost  than  polished 
work,  it  being  to  the  advantage  of  the  Belgian  manufac- 
turer (who  in  this  case  is  also  the  quarry  owner)  to  work 
his  own  material.  By  keeping  up  the  price  he  secures 
employment  for  his  hands,  both  in  quarry  and  workshop, 
and  obtains  either  a  small  profit  on  each  of  the  opera- 
tions or  a  large  one  on  the  quarried  material  if  his  works 
are  idle.  The  slabs  being  liable  to  fracture  readily,  are 
generally  stuck  together  with  plaster  of  Paris  or  a  similar 
adhesive.  With  these  exceptions,  it  is  customary  for  quarry 
owners  to  produce  block  only  (sometimes  sawn  or  otherwise 
worked  to  approximate  sizes),  leaving  it  to  the  manufac- 
turer to  work  it  in  such  manner  as  may  prove  most 
advantageous  to  the  purpose  for  which  it  may  be  required. 
It  may  be  generally  stated  that  the  working  of  marble 
for  many  of  the  uses  for  which  it  is  employed  is  an  industry 
in  itself.  One  firm  will  specialise  on  clock  cases  and 
articles  that  can  be  duplicated  by  the  gross ;  a  second  will 
manufacture  little  else  than  chimney-pieces  ;  another  will 
work  table-tops  by  the  thousand ;  yet  another  will  make 
the  production  of  marble  tiles,  etc.,  their  leading  feature. 
While  it  will  be  found  that  there  are  firms  existing  in  most 
of  the  large  centres  of  population  that  are  able  to  supply 
the  lesser  local  requirements,  the  execution  of  large 
decorative  schemes  is  practically  confined  to  a  small 
number  of  establishments.  That  this  is  necessarily  the 
case,  owing  to  the  conditions  prevailing  for  the  carrying 
out  of  such  work,  is  apparent  on  consideration.  It  seldom 
happens  that  a  scheme  of  decoration  is  carried  out  in  the 
marbles  of  one  particular  district  or  even  of  one  country, 
it  being  no  uncommon  matter  for  the  products  of  five,  six, 
or  more  different  nations  to  be  used  in  the  decoration  of 


MARBLE  WORKING  IN  BELGIUM. 


121 


a  single  interior.  Some  of  the  finest  marbles  employed 
for  decorative  purposes  are  secured  from  countries  that 
are  entirely  lacking  in  facilities  for  working  their  own 
products,  or  where  the  transport  and  other  conditions, 
while  being  favourable  for  the  exportation  of  rough  blocks, 


FIG.  44. 


A  WORKSHOP  INTERIOR,  LA  BUSSIERE,  BELGIUM. 

are  quite  inadequate  for  the  finished  article.  In  any  case, 
it  would  be  highly  detrimental  to  good  workmanship 
for  marbles  forming  the  various  portions  of  a  decorative 
interior  in  which  the  marbles  of  several  nations  were  used 
to  be  worked  in  their  respective  countries  of  origin.  The 
difficulties  of  working  would  be  multiplied  with  each  sub- 


122       MAEBLE  AND   MAEBLE  WOEKING. 

contract  entered  into,  and  the  task  of  assembling,  fitting, 
and  fixing  the  various  portions  of  the  work  under  a  time 
contract  may  possibly  be  imagined,  but  certainly  not 
described.  Unless  work  can  be  carried  out  in  its  entirety 
at  one  place,  effective  supervision  cannot  be  exercised,  and 
the  experience  gained  in  this  class  of  work  has  proved  the 
futility  of  dividing  up  a  contract,  and  the  advisability  of 
working  it  as  a  whole  rather  than  in  sections. 

While  the  proprietors  of  the  leading  establishments  for 
the  working  of  marble  are,  generally  speaking,  themselves 
quarry  owners,  the  proportion  of  the  marbles  they  own  is 
small  in  comparison  with  the  bulk  of  their  output,  and  the 
fact  of  such  ownership  is  accessory  rather  than  essential 
to  the  business  proper. 

One  of  the  peculiarities  of  the  Continental  marble 
industry  is  that  the  principal  factories  for  the  working  of 
coloured  marbles  are  situated,  not  in  any  of  the  countries 
that  are  large  producers  of  the  material,  but  in  Belgium, 
a  country  without  natural  facilities  and  remote  from  the 
centres  of  production.  The  industry  was  established  at 
about  the  time  of  the  first  Eevolution,  possibly  as  a  result 
of  the  unrest  prevailing  not  only  in  France,  but  also  in 
Central  and  Southern  Europe ;  and  while  for  many  years 
but  little  advancement  was  made,  the  experience  gained 
was  of  great  value,  and  enabled  Belgian  houses  to  practi- 
cally dominate  the  trade  in  the  revival  that  took  place 
towards  the  middle  of  the  last  century.*  Their  position 


*  The  independence  of  Belgium  was  not  proclaimed  until  1836.  It' 
should  be  remembered,  however,  that,  with  the  exception  of  the  events 
of  1815,  the  remoteness  of  her  position  made  what  is  now  Belgian 
territory  comparatively  immune  from  the  unsettlement  that  was 
convulsing  the  adjoining  nations. 


MARBLE   WORKING    IN    BELGIUM. 


123 


has  often  been  assailed,  but  never  successfully ;  and 
although  the  working  of  marble  is  now  more  general, 
Belgian  establishments  still  occupy  the  premier  position  in 
this  respect,  and  secure  the  best  of  the  trade.  This  cannot 
be  said  to  be  due  to  any  local  advantages  or  prolific  supply 

FIG.  45. 


INTERIOR  OF  MACHINE  SHOP,  LA  BUSSIERE,  BELGIUM. 

of  material  close  at  hand.  Belgian  marbles  are  not  of  the 
highest  class,  and  are  only  used  for  purposes  of  decoration 
where  price  and  not  beauty  is  the  principal  consideration. 
The  leading  factories,  too,  are  situated  in  places  well 
removed  from  the  seaboard,  and  the  finished  work  has 
consequently  to  bear  the  cost  of  transport  of  the  material 
in  both  directions  from  the  most  accessible  port. 


1-24       MARBLE   AND   MARBLE   WORKING. 

Systematic  organisation,  based  on  accumulated  experi- 
ence, has  enabled  one  house  in  particular  to  maintain  an 
unequalled  position  in  connection  with  this  industry ;  and 
it  is  generally  admitted  throughout  the  trade  that  work 
placed  with  La  Societe  Anonyme  de  Merbes-le-Chateau 
will  be  effectively  carried  out,  and  that  as  good  value  will 
be  given  as  the  circumstances  governing  the  work  will 
allow.  The  establishment  named  has  four  factories  in 
Belgium,  two  in  Germany  (the  larger  one  erected  and 
equipped  in  anticipation  of  the  tariff  scheme  adopted  in 
March  of  1905),  one  in  France,  and  a  depot  in  Italy, 
besides  agencies  in  leading  European  centres.  The 
principal  factory  for  the  supply  of  work  for  Great  Britain 
is  situate  at  La  Bussiere,  in  the  Soir  et  Sambre  Valley, 
and  there  are  few  of  our  important  cities  that  do  not 
contain  work  that  was  fashioned  in  the  shops  of  this 
village.  The  works  of  MM.  De  Jaiffe  Freres  at  Mazy  also 
turn  out  good  work,  and  supply  the  British  market  to  no 
inconsiderable  extent. 

The  principal  French  establishments,  while  not  being 
of  equal  capacity  to  the  leading  Belgian  houses,  are  yet  of 
considerable  importance.  One  firm  alone,  L' Exploitation 
des  Marbres  de  1'Ouest,  has  sawing  machinery  taking  up 
to  840  blades  in  their  factory  at  Quemont,  and  this  is 
exceeded  at  their  works  at  Sable  (Brittany).  Other  houses 
that  may  be  mentioned  as  possessing  considerable  facilities 
for  the  carrying  out  of  decorative  marble  work  are  La 
Grande  Marbrerie,  Bagnerre  de  Bigorre  (Hautes  Pyrenees) ; 
Henri  Vienne,  of  Cousolre,  and  Devillers  et  Cie,  Marpent 
(Nord)  ;  and  M.  Cantini,  of  Marseilles. 

Generally  speaking,  the  French  establishments  are 
considered  slightly  less  reliable  than  are  the  Belgian. 


MARBLE   WORKING   IN   FRANCE. 


125 


126       MAEBLE   AND   MAKBLE   WORKING. 

While  the  work  is  of  high  class,  the  artistic  feeling 
displayed  being  exceedingly  good,  the  former  are  said  to 
be  better  at  promising  than  at  performing,  and  delays 
are  often  encountered  which  might  with  better  manage- 
ment be  avoided.  These  are  defects  that  are  common 
to  many  of  the  foreign  establishments,  and,  while  most 
vexatious,  are  likely  to  be  experienced  so  long  as  the 
industry  is  mainly  an  alien  one. 

Marble  working  in  Italy  is,  so  far  as  decorative 
schemes  are  concerned,  in  an  undeveloped  condition.  The 
workers  are  chiefly  occupied  with  monumental  and  artistic 
work,  and  are  not  readily  adaptable  to  other  kinds.  The 
methods  of  working  in  the  Carrara  district  are  carried  out 
more  on  "  rule  of  thumb "  lines  than  with  systematic 
accuracy,  and  the  various  workshops  (studii)  being  under 
separate  control,  there  is  a  lack  of  general  supervision, 
arrangements  for  assembling  the  work  previous  to 
exportation  being  seldom  made.  A  considerable  amount  ot 
alteration  and  fitting  is  therefore  necessary  on  the  arrival 
of  the  work  at  its  destination.  Machinery  is  not  employed 
to  any  great  extent,  and  while  a  general  tendency  is 
apparent  to  lay  down  plant  for  working  on  modern  lines, 
considerations  of  the  first  cost  of  installations  and  of  their 
subsequent  maintenance  have  induced  Italian  workers  to 
adopt  a  conservative  attitude  in  this  respect.  This  is 
aptly  summarised  by  Signor  Ernesto  Oraglio,  of  the  Italian 
Royal  Corps  of  Mines.  Writing  in  1906  on  "  Marble 
Working  in  the  Apuan  Alps,"*  after  describing  the  methods 
in  force  and  the  progress  being  made  in  the  industry,  he 
states  :  "  The  Apuan  workshops  are  ruled  by  an  artistic 

*  "Rassegna  Mineraria,"  Jan.  6th  and  llth   1906. 


3  g 

0  a 


[Z'o 


127. 


MAKBLE   WORKING    IN   ITALY.  127 

rather  than  an  industrial  principle.  This  prevents  economi- 
cal improvements  from  the  adoption  of  machinery." 

Certain  of  the  Carrara  studios  are  engaged  almost 
entirely  in  the  working  of  marble  for  building  purposes, 
and  in  these  pneumatic  tools,  both  for  dressed  and 
moulded  work,  as  well  as  for  carved  ornamentation,  are 
in  extensive  use  (see  Fig.  46).  The  masonry  for  the 
Queen  Victoria  Memorial,  facing  Buckingham  Palace, 
was  thus  worked,  and  a  number  of  building  schemes  for 
leading  European  and  South  American  centres  have  been 
carried  through  of  recent  years.  In  cases  where  it  has 
been  possible  for  work  of  this  nature  to  be  wrought 
throughout  under  a  single  management,  the  results 
have  been  satisfactory.  In  other  instances,  however, 
considerations  of  time,  or  lack  of  facilities  to  undertake 
large  contracts,  have  necessitated  the  dividing  up  of 
the  work,  and  some  amount  of  confusion  has  con- 
sequently occurred. 

Abrasive  machinery  of  modern  type  is  used  to  a 
small  extent  at  Pietrasanta  and  Seravezza,  also  at  Mazzano 
(Brescia),  the  last-named  locality  having  well-equipped 
shops  for  the  production  of  both  building  and  decora- 
tive work  in  local  marbles.  Their  productions  have 
been  in  considerable  use  in  Great  Britain  during  the 
past  few  years,  one  of  the  latest  instances  being  the 
entrance  and  grand  staircase  of  the  new  Public  Offices, 
Westminster,  S.W.  The  marble  is  not  suited  for  building 
purposes  in  London  (see  p.  57).  Generally  speaking, 
however,  the  efforts  that  have  been  made  in  Italy  for 
the  supply  of  the  higher  qualities  of  work  for  the  British 
market  have  not  been  altogether  a  success,  the  necessary 
experience  required  in  assembling  and  fitting  the  respec- 


128       MARBLE  AND  MARBLE   WORKING. 

tive  portions  of  the  work  having  been  lacking.  Even 
where  schemes  have  been  carried  out  in  one  marble,  great 
difficulty  has  prevailed  in  the  fixing,  consequent  upon  the 
inaccuracy  that  has  obtained  both  in  setting  out  and 
working  to  correct  sizes ;  and  while  these  are  defects  that 
will  probably  disappear  with  the  gaining  of  experience, 
Italian  manufacturers  cannot  yet  be  regarded  as  serious 
competitors  for  the  better  class  of  decorative  work. 

Marble  working  for  export  is  also  carried  on  at 
Norrkoping  and  at  Copenhagen,  but  the  amount  of 
worked  material  coming  therefrom  is  not  of  large  extent. 
This  is  mainly  on  account  of  the  fact  that  local  marbles 
only  are  worked  in  Sweden,  while  the  Copenhagen  works 
are  practically  confined  to  the  working  of  Norwegian 
marbles. 

The  effective  carrying  out  of  decorative  schemes  in 
marble  calls  for  the  utmost  accuracy  in  planning,  setting 
out,  and  working.  Unless  this  has  been  properly  under- 
taken, the  fixer's  task  is  greatly  increased.  Every  credit 
is  due  to  Continental  houses  for  the  care  that  is  exercised 
in  fashioning,  assembling,  and  marking  the  various  portions 
of  the  work.  Key  plans  are  forwarded  with  each  consign- 
ment, every  piece  of  marble  being  separately  numbered  and 
its  position  shown.  The  packing  of  the  work  is,  speaking 
generally,  well  done,  and  the  amount  of  breakages,  taking 
into  consideration  the  nature  of  the  material,  low.  When 
it  is  remembered  that  the  marble  work  is  executed  several 
hundreds  of  miles  from  the  building  of  which  it  is  to  form 
a  part,  that  all  instructions  respecting  such  working  have 
to  be  transmitted  in  what  to  the  worker  is  a  foreign 
language,  and  that  consignments  have  to  be  handled  at 
least  five  times  between  the  factory  and  the  building,  the 


MARBLE   WORKING   IN   ITALY.  129 

wonder  is  that  errors  in  working  are  so  infrequent  and 
that  breakages  are  so  small.  The  Continental  manufacturer 
is  to  be  commended  for  the  manner  in  which  the  work  is 
executed  and  forwarded. 

While  considerable  changes  have  taken  place  of  recent 
years  in  the  working  of  the  material,  it  may  be  stated 
generally,  so  far  as  Continental  houses  are  concerned,  that 
the  increase  in  the  demand  for  marble  for  decorative  pur- 
poses has  been  about  equal  to  that  of  the  markets  which 
have  been  lost,  and  hence  that  neither  France  nor  Belgium 
have  appreciably  suffered  from  the  changes  that  have 
occurred  in  their  areas  of  supply. 


130 


CHAPTER  XII. 

Marble  Working  Machinery  (British  and  Continental). 

MARBLE  is  supplied  to  the  manufacturer  in  block,  and  has 
first  to  be  cut  into  slabs.     For  this  purpose  a  gang  saw  is 
used.     This  consists  of  a  number  of  blades  of  mild  steel 
set  in  a  frame  at  distances  apart  to  correspond  with  the 
thickness  of  the  slabs  required,  and  tightly  strained  by 
wedges  at  the  ends.     In  the  later  types  of  saw,  the  frame 
is  suspended   by    short  rods  carried  on  shafts  which  are 
attached  to  uprights,  the  latter  acting  as  guides  to  the 
frame.      A  connecting-rod  is  attached  to  one  end  of  the 
frame,  the  other  end  of  the  rod  being  fixed  to  a  crank 
connected  with  the  shafting  or  with  a  small  electric  motor. 
This  communicates  an  oscillating  movement  to  the  frame, 
and  sand  and  water  being  applied,  blocks  placed  under- 
neath the  saws  are  cut  into  slabs  as  required.     In  some 
cases  the  sand  is  thrown  on  by  an  attendant ;  in  others  a 
"  shaking  box  "    is  fitted  above  the  saw,   the  sand  and 
water  being  supplied  automatically.     A  type  of  saw  in 
considerable  use  on  the  Continent  has  a  centrifugal  pump 
attached,   the  sand  and  water  being  used  over  and  over 
again.     The  frames  are  automatically  lowered  by  a  worm 
and  screw  attachment  connected  with  the  shafts  carrying 
the   suspending   rods.     Fine    sharp   sand   is   the   cutting 
medium  most  extensively  used,  but  a  preference  is  shown 
at  times  for  other  abrasives,  such  as  crushed  steel  shot, 
corundum,  diamond  grit,  etc. 


METHODS   OF   SAWING.  131 

Frame  saws  are  constructed  to  carry  any  number  up 
to  80  blades,  the  rate  of  cutting  with  the  larger 
number  being  from  |  in.  to  1  in.  per  hour,  using  sharp 

FIG.  47. 


A  WELL-KNOWN  TYPE  OF  FRAME  SAW. 
Note  the  short  arms  on  which  the  frame  swings,  securing  rapidity  of  cutting. 

sand.  Much  depends  on  the  cutting  power  of  the  medium 
employed  and  on  the  nature  of  the  marble  to  be  sawn. 
With  the  harder  grits,  while  a  more  speedy  rate  of  cutting 

K  2 


132        MAEBLE   AND   MARBLE   WORKING. 

is  often  attained,  the  surface  left  from  the  saw  is  less 
even,  entailing  a  greater  amount  of  labour  in  subsequent 
operations.  The  saw-plates,  too,  wear  away  more  quickly, 
and,  all  things  considered,  little  is  gained  by  quick-cutting 
mediums. 

The  cutting  of  slabs  to  sizes  required  is  ordinarily 
accomplished  by  what  is  known  as  a  "rip"  saw,  having 
from  one  to  six  blades,  according  to  the  work  to  be  done. 
The  slabs  are  placed  in  position  under  the  saw,  and  fixed 
by  plaster  of  Paris.  The  rip  saw  is  somewhat  similar  to 
the  frame  saw,  but  is  lighter  in  build  and  generally  faster 
in  working. 

A  method  of  cutting  slabs  to  size  that  is  in  considerable 
use  is  that  of  the  diamond  saw.  This  is  a  fixed  circular 
saw,  with  a  number  of  diamonds  set  in  its  periphery.  The 
slabs  to  be  sawn  are  clamped  on  to  a  travelling  table, 
which  carries  them  under  the  saw.  This  method  is  more 
rapid  in  action,  and  leaves  a  cleaner  arris  than  does  rip 
sawing.  It  is  claimed  to  be  much  more  economical  than 
the  older  methods,  The  experience  of  some  workers  has 
been,  however,  that  the  economy  effected  in  sawing  is 
sometimes  discounted  by  the  additional  labour  required 
on  the  rubbing  bed  in  order  to  remove  the  curf  marks  left 
by  the  saw.  The  diamond  saw  is  also  used  for  cutting 
out  scantlings  for  moulded  work.  It  is  capable  of  cutting 
ordinary  Sicilian  marble  at  the  rate  of  2  ft.  super,  of  sawing 
per  minute,  i.e.,  4  ft.  run  of  marble  6  in.  thick.  This  does 
not  include  placing  and  removing  the  material. 

Certain  of  the  unicoloured  and  saccharoidal  marbles  are 
so  homogeneous  in  structure  as  to  permit  of  slabs  being 
coped  to  size.  This  is  accomplished  by  giving  a  succession 
of  blows  with  a  hammer  and  chisel  along  a  previously 


METHODS   OF   SAWING. 


133 


134        MAKBLE  AND  MARBLE  WORKING. 

marked  line  ;  the  effect  being  to  stun  the  marble  at  the 
point  of  contact,  enabling  it  to  be  broken  off  with  a 
comparatively  clean  edge.  Slabs  up  to  2  in.  in  thickness 
can  thus  be  secured  to  sizes  required  without  difficulty, 
but  with  practically  all  coloured  marbles  sawing  must  be 
the  means  adopted. 

The  machinery  used  in  the  working  of  marble  is  of  a 
varied  character.  For  plain  faced  work,  the  material 
having  been  cut  to  approximate  size,  the  edges  are  squared 
on  a  "  rubbing  bed."  This  consists  of  a  horizontal  bed 
of  cast  iron,  geared  to  shafting  on  the  under  side  and 
revolving  at  high  speed.  Sand  and  water  are  thrown  on 
the  bed,  and  the  marble  held  in  position,  the  abrasive 
action  thus  set  up  speedily  giving  a  true  edge  to  the 
marble.  The  rubbing  bed  is  also  used  for  surfacing  small 
slabs  and  scantlings. 

For  large  flat  surfaces  a  combined  rotary  sanding  and 
polishing  machine  is  used.  This  consists  of  an  octagonal 
frame,  faced  on  the  under  side  with  flat  iron  knobs  for 
sanding  purposes,  or  covered  with  rope  or  felt  for  polishing 
purposes.  A  shaft  extends  from  the  frame,  carrying  a 
pulley  on  its  extremity.  This  is  connected  by  belting  to 
a  pulley  of  similar  size,  which  connects  by  gearing  with  the 
main  driving  shaft  (see  Fig.  49).  An  eccentric  rotary 
motion  is  thus  given  to  the  sanding  or  polishing  frame. 
The  slabs  of  marble  to  be  surfaced,  having  been  cut  to 
size  and  the  edges  squared,  are  placed  on  a  level  bed, 
the  face  to  be  polished  downwards.  The  backs  of  the 
slabs  are  then  coated  with  plaster,  and  a  3-in.  board, 
the  size  of  the  bed  covered  by  the  frame  in  its  revolu- 
tions, placed  on  the  plaster  and  allowed  to  set.  The 
board  is  then  turned  over  and  placed  under  the  machine, 


MACHINE  SANDING  AND   POLISHING.     135 


136       MARBLE   AND   MARBLE   WORKING. 

and  the  rubbing  frame  being  attached  to  the  shafting, 
and  the  necessary  abrasives  applied,  a  true  surface  is 
speedily  secured.  The  greatest  economy  in  the  use  of 
rotaries  is  effected  by  keeping  three  or  more  machines 
running,  one  for  each  process  required.  The  beds  being 
interchangeable,  they  can  be  removed  from  the  sanding 
to  the  polishing  machine  without  delay,  otherwise  the 
work  has  to  be  washed  off  and  the  frames  changed  for 
each  operation. 

Slabs  that  are  too  heavy  to  be  worked  under  the 
rotary  machines  are  sometimes  polished  in  what  is  known 
as  a  "  blocking  machine."  This  consists  of  a  heavy  block 
covered  with  felt,  connected  by  a  shaft  to  an  iron  frame, 
to  which  a  rocking  motion  is  given  by  means  of  a  crank 
action.  The  slab  is  placed  under  the  machine,  and  the 
usual  polishing  mediums  applied  as  the  felt-covered  block 
travels  backwards  and  forwards. 

Another  appliance  used  for  facing  work  is  known  as  a 
"  spinner."  This  consists  of  a  flat-iron  perforated  disc, 
connected  to  the  shafting  by  a  universal  joint.  The  disc 
being  placed  on  the  marble  and  set  in  motion,  sand  and 
water  are  thrown  on  the  top,  and,  passing  through  the 
perforations,  give  an  even  surface  in  a  short  time.  The 
spinner  is  principally  used  for  surfacing  slabs  that  are  too 
heavy  to  be  worked  on  the  rotary  machines,  and  for 
giving  an  even  face  to  the  soffits  of  arched  work.  For  the 
latter  work  a  smaller  disc  has  to  be  used.  A  similar 
acting  disc  faced  with  felt  is  sometimes  used  for  polishing 
purposes. 

A  machine  used  for  surfacing  and  polishing  large  slabs 
is  known  as  the  "  Jenny  Lind."  This  machine  is  con- 
structed so  as  to  allow  the  rubbing  disc  to  be  operated  on 


THE   SPINNING  JENNY. 


137 


a   horizontal   plane  in  any   direction  desired,  the   rotary 
motion   being   communicated   to    the   disc   by   means   of 


FIG.  50. 


THE  "JENNY  LIND." 
A  useful  machine  for  general  purposes. 


belting  running  over  two  sets  of  pulleys  (see  Fig.  50). 
Both  the  spinner  and  "  Jenny  Lind,"  as  well  as  the 
rotary  machines,  work  on  slabs  fixed  in  position,  the  area 


138       MAEBLE  AND  MAKBLE  WORKING. 

covered  by  the  latter  being  64  superficial  ft.  at  a  single 
operation.  Where  exceptionally  long  slabs  have  to  be 
dealt  with,  they  are  fixed  by  plaster  to  a  travelling 
table,  which  runs  backwards  and  forwards  under  the 
rubbing  discs,  the  surface  of  the  marble  being  carefully 


FIG.  51. 


THE  "  STEAM  MASON." 
A  well-known  marble  moulding  machine. 

washed  off  after  each  operation  before  the  final  one  of 
polishing. 

Mouldings  are  run  almost  entirely  by  machinery.  The 
machines  used  are  of  two  distinct  types,  the  one  removing 
the  surplus  marble  by  a  "  scraping  "  action,  the  other  by 


MOULDING  MACHINERY.  139 

the  use  of  abrasives.  The  first-named  are  heavy  machines, 
tools  to  the  reverse  section  of  the  moulding  to  be  worked 
being  fastened  in  a  massive  box  running  the  width  of  the 
machine.  The  marble,  being  secured  by  bolts  and  screws 
to  a  travelling  table,  is  conveyed  under  the  tool,  and 
gradually  worked  to  the  desired  contour.  The  speeding 
of  the  machine  is  limited  by  its  weakest  factor,  i.e.,  the 
cutting  power  of  the  tool.  This  type  of  machine  was 
introduced  in  1887,*  and  was  a  great  advance  on  the  hand 
labour  formerly  prevailing.  Machines  of  similar  construc- 
tion are  still  in  use  in  many  of  the  Continental  centres, 
and,  in  some  instances,  are  stated  to  produce  more  accurate 
results  than  are  obtained  by  the  use  of  abrasive  wheels. 

The  introduction  of  high-cutting  abrasives  for  marble 
working  only  dates  from  1903,  but  the  efficiency  of  this 
method  of  working  has  been  demonstrated  to  such  an 
extent  that  in  many  instances  the  older  type  of  machine 
has  been  entirely  superseded.  The  medium  in  most 
general  use  is  known  as  "  carborundum,"  f  and  wheels  of 
this  substance,  shaped  to  the  desired  section,  are  affixed 


*  The  first  machine  for  working  mouldings  in  marble  was  supplied 
to  Messrs.  Galbraith  &  Winton,  of  Glasgow,  by  Coulter  &  Co.,  of 
Batley,  for  the  Glasgow  Municipal  Buildings.  It  is  a  tribute  to  the 
excellence  of  British  manufacture  that  the  machine  is  in  operation  at 
the  time  of  writing,  and  is  doing  good  service. 

t  Carborundum. — This  material  is  the  sharpest  and  hardest 
abrasive  known.  It  is  an  artificial  composition,  produced  by  the  fusion 
of  coke,  sand,  sawdust,  and  salt  in  an  electrical  furnace  at  a  tempera- 
ture approximating  7,500°  Fahr.,  this  heat  being  maintained  for 
thirty- six  hours.  The  resultant  composition  is  a  crystalline  mass  of 
carbon  and  silicon,  which  is  ground,  graded,  mixed  with  a  binding 
material,  and  moulded  to  the  shape  desired.  The  abrasive  efficiency  of 
carborundum  is  from  three  to  five  times  that  of  emery,  and  as  the 
crystals  break,  they  invariably  leave  a  new,  sharp  edge  of  exceptional 


140       MARBLE   AND   MARBLE   WORKING. 

to  a  spindle,  which  is  caused  to  revolve  at  a  speed  of  from 
1,000  to  2,500  revolutions  per  minute.* 

Carborundum  is  employed  in  the  working  of  mouldings, 
sawing  marble  to  size,  and,  in  some  instances,  for 
surfacing  slabs  and  scantlings.  The  material  is  made 
up  either  on  a  flat  steel  disc,  for  sawing  purposes,  or 
with  a  vitreous  bond  and  soft  metal  bushings,  for 
moulded  work.  It  is  also  obtainable  in  grits  of  various 
degrees  of  fineness,  but  is  much  too  sharp  for  use  as 
a  polishing  medium.  For  sawing,  it  has  in  some  in- 
stances displaced  the  diamond  saw. 

Several  types  of  machines  have  been  introduced  for  the 
working  of  marble  by  means  of  abrasives  One  of  the 
most  ingenious  is  the  Universal  Stone-working  Machine, 
produced  by  Bercher  &  Gerhausen,  of  Altengronau, 
Hesse.  This  machine  is  so  constructed  that  the  working 
shaft  can  be  adjusted  to  operate  either  in  a  vertical  or 
horizontal  position,  or  canted  to  any  desired  angle,  the 
marble  to  be  worked  being  fixed  by  dogs  to  a  travelling 
table,  which  conveys  the  work  under  the  wheels.  The 
range  of  working  admits  of  runs  of  moulding  up  to  6  m. 
in  length  being  worked  on  material  with  a  maximum 
width  of  2  m.  and  depth  of  1'3  m.  (say  20  ft.  by  6  ft.  6  in. 
by  4  ft.  4  in.).  An  attachment  is  also  provided  for 
turning  balusters  and  small  ornaments,  and  the  working 
of  mouldings  for  shaped  and  circular  work.  Some  idea 

hardness  ;  the  material  is  also  some  28  per  cent,  lighter  in  weight  than 
emery,  bulk  for  bulk.  The  latter  feature  is  of  great  importance  when 
the  high  speeds  at  which  the  wheels  are  run  are  taken  into  considera- 
tion, the  breaking  strain  being  in  every  case  proportional  to  the  weight 
of  the  substance  used. 

*  The  workable  speed  of  carborundum  wheels  may  be  taken  as 
averaging  5,000  ft.  of  periphery  of  wheel  per  minute. 


MARBLE   WORKING  WITH  ABRASIVES.     141 

of  the  work  that  can  be  done  by  the  Universal  Machine 
can  be  obtained  from  the  sections  of  mouldings  illustrated 
(see  Figs.  52  and  52A).  For  lengths  of  1  m.  (say  40  in.), 


THE  UNIVERSAL  STONE-WORKING  MACHINE. 

all  from  sawn   marble  slabs,    sections  6  and  10   are  run 

in  three  and  a   half  minutes  each  ;    sections  3  and  4  in 

five  minutes ;    section  9  in  eleven  minutes ;  sections  2, 


142       MARBLE  AND  MAEBLE  WORKING. 


MARBLE   WORKING  WITH  ABRASIVES.     143 

5,  7,  and  8  in  fifteen  minutes  ;  and  section  11  in  twenty- 
five  minutes,  when  worked  from  a  square  edge,  and 
twelve  minutes  when  the  edge  had  first  been  sawn  (also 
by  the  machine)  to  an  angle  of  45°.  The  turned  baluster 
shown  in  section  12,  worked  from  marble  that  had  been 
roughly  bevelled,  was  completed  in  six  minutes.*  The 
sections  are  drawn  one-half  full  size. 

The  advantages  secured  by  the  use  of  abrasive  wheels 
over  machinery  of  the  older  type  are  very  considerable. 
The  machines  required  are  less  heavy  and  simpler  in 
design  ;  the  cutting  wheels  can  be  adapted  for  working 
either  vertically  or  horizontally  ;  an  entire  section  of 
moulding  can  be  completed  in  a  single  operation  ;  and, 
perhaps  the  more  important  feature  of  all,  the  surface 
of  the  work  as  it  comes  from  the  machine  is  smooth 
and  almost  ready  for  the  polisher  to  work  upon.  The 
medium  used  for  the  composition  of  the  wheels  wears 
to  such  slight  extent  as  to  permit  of  their  use  for  long 
periods,  provided  they  do  not  break,  and  the  contour 
of  the  edges  may  be  altered,  if  required,  without  great 
difficulty. 

One  of  the  uses  for  which  abrasive  wheels  have  been 
employed  is  the  making  of  marble  tiles  for  flooring 
purposes.  Two  hollow  wheels  are  mounted  on  a  spindle 
at  a  distance  equal  to  the  width  of  the  tile  required,  and 
the  machine  being  set  running,  a  slab  of  marble  of 
slightly  larger  dimensions  than  the  finished  tile  is  passed 
between  the  wheels.  The  guide  can  be  canted  to  any 
angle  for  the  producing  of  lozenge-shaped  tiles  or  of 
octagons.  The  machine  produces  tiles  of  a  uniform  size 

*  These  times  do  not  include  the  fixing  and  removing  of  marble 
on  the  table. 


144       MAEBLE   AND   MAEBLE   WOEKINGL 

and  with  a  sharp,  true  edge,  in  about  one- tenth  of   the 
time  taken  by  the  older  methods. 

Pneumatic  appliances  are  used  to  some  extent  both 
for  moulded  and  carved  work.  The  plant  consists  of 
a  compressor  from  which  air  at  a  pressure  of  from  50lb. 

FIG.  53. 


MASONS  WORKING  WITH  PNEUMATIC  TOOLS,  HUEYAPAM,  MEXICO. 

to  80  Ib.  to  the  square  inch  is  conveyed  through  flexible 
tubes  to  the  hammer.  This  consists  of  a  valve  and 
piston  arrangement,  giving  a  striking  action  of  over 
3,000  blows  per  minute,  the  tool  being  inserted  against 
the  piston.  The  force  of  the  stroke  is  easily  adjustable 
by  the  workman. 


LATHES  FOE  MARBLE  WORKING.        145 

The  lathes  required  for  marble  working  occupy  an 
important  place  in  the  manufacturer's  equipment.  It  is 
no  uncommon  thing  for  monolith  columns  to  be  called  for 
weighing  7  tons  each  or  over.  A  lathe  capable  of 
supporting  this  weight  on  centres  must  necessarily  be 
of  a  heavy  type.  The  marble  for  columns  is  generally 
quarried  separately,  and  roughed  out  to  within  ^  in.  or 
1  in.  of  their  finished  diameter  by  hand.  Steel  centres 
are  then  inserted  in  the  ends,  and  the  embryo  column 
fixed  in  the  lathe.  The  work  of  turning  is  done  by  free- 
revolving  cutters  made  with  a  bevel  edge  out  of  specially 
hardened  steel.  These  automatically  travel  along  the  side 
of  the  rough  column,  cutting  into  and  removing  the 
surplus  material  as  the  lathe  revolves  (see  Fig.  54). 
Carborundum  wheels,  working  by  means  of  flexible 
shafting,  are  sometimes  used  in  this  connection.  The 
final  processes  are  effected  in  a  polishing  lathe  by  means 
of  cast-iron  weights,  gritstone,  emery,  putty  powder,  etc. 

The  casing  of  iron  or  steel  pillars  with  marble  columns 
involves  a  considerable  amount  of  labour.  The  columns, 
having  been  turned  and  polished,  are  sawn  through  the 
centre,  care  being  taken  to  prevent  any  chipping  at  the 
edges  on  the  bottom  of  the  cut.  To  avoid  this,  the 
columns  are  bedded  in  plaster  of  Paris.  The  halves  are 
then  hollowed  out  either  by  hand  or  by  means  of  the 
diamond  or  abrasive  saw,  which,  on  being  suitably  adjusted, 
puts  in  a  series  of  cuts  that  are  afterwards  broached  out 
by  hand.  Sufficient  material  having  been  removed  to  give 
clearance  to  the  girder  or  pillar  to  be  cased,  the  edges  of  the 
half-columns  are  rubbed  together  so  as  to  show  a  fine  joint, 
and  are  then  ready  for  fixing.  The  jointing  is  so  accurately 
done  that  it  seldom  happens  that  repolishing  is  necessary. 


146       MARBLE  AND   MAEBLE  WORKING. 


SCULPTURE   BY  MACHINERY.  147 

The  carving  of  marble  is  generally  undertaken  by  a 
separate  staff.  Respecting  this  class  of  work,  machinery 
is  of  little  use,  the  whole  work  being  a  matter  of  artistic 
feeling  and  training.  Machines  have  been  in  use  for  some 
years  past  for  repetition  work,  but  the  general  experience 
has  been  that  no  advantage  has  been  gained  by  their  use. 
One  of  the  types  that  has  been  introduced  is  known  as 
the  "  Wenzel  "  machine.  The  principle  of  the  machine  is 
as  follows :  A  number  of  revolving  drills  and  a  fixed 
point  are  set  in  a  balanced  frame  in  such  manner  that  the 
point  and  drills  occupy  the  same  relative  position.  A 
block  of  marble  having  been  placed  under  each  drill  and 
fixed  in  position,  and  the  model  to  be  copied  secured 
under  the  fixed  point,  the  machine  is  set  in  motion, 
and  the  point  passed  over  every  part  of  the  model, 
the  theory  being  that  each  of  the  drills  will  thus  scoop 
out  a  replica  of  the  model.  The  main  difficulty 
encountered  is,  that  in  undercutting,  the  drills  are  not 
sufficiently  sensitive,  and  on  too  much  pressure  being 
applied,  the  marble  breaks  away.  This  defect  may 
be  overcome  in  time,  in  which  case  the  machine  will 
be  of  great  use  for  repetition  work.  Even  then  the 
work  would  have  to  be  finished  by  hand.  A  machine 
working  on  a  similar  principle  has  been  installed  and 
abandoned  in  Italian  workshops,  but  this  might  be 
due  as  much  to  the  cheapness  of  labour  in  Italy  as  to  any 
defect  in  the  machine.  Machine  carving  has  been  shown 
to  be  of  utility  for  the  reproduction  of  statuettes  and 
other  small  articles,  but  so  far  as  the  carving  of  marble 
for  decorative  purposes  is  concerned,  its  success  has  yet 
to  be  demonstrated. 

No   machine   has   yet   been   devised   for   successfully 

L  2 


148       MAEBLE  AND   MAEBLE  WOEKING. 

polishing  moulded  or  carved  marble  work.  Various 
chemicals  have  been  tried  with  the  object  of  securing  a 
quick  and  lasting  polish,  but  in  no  case  have  these  been 
attended  with  success.  In  this  field,  at  any  rate,  labour 
is  able  to  hold  its  own.  A  good  polish  can  only  be 
secured  by  vigorous  rubbing  with  various  polishing 
mediums.  The  selection  of  the  materials  to  be  used  for 
securing  a  lasting  polish  depends  to  some  extent  on  the 
nature  of  the  marble  to  be  operated  on.  For  marbles  that 
"  close  "  readily,  putty  powder  (oxide  of  tin)  and  rouge  are 
generally  sufficient ;  but  where  "  pins "  are  encountered, 
and  with  marbles  of  such  nature  that  the  surface  presents 
different  degrees  of  hardness,  it  is  necessary  to  use  various 
materials  in  order  to  secure  a  good  polish.  These  include 
emery  powder,  either  used  separately  or  mixed  with  lead 
filings,  corundum,  tripoli,  and  putty  powder.  Water  is 
used  in  a  decreasing  amount  with  each  process.  In  many 
of  the  Continental  centres  polishing  is  mainly  carried  out 
by  women  and  girls,  and  the  standard  of  efficiency  is  high. 
The  slabs  used  for  wall  linings  are  ordinarily  supplied 
worked  to  a  nominal  thickness  of  f  in.  A  system  has, 
however,  been  introduced  of  late  by  leading  Continental 
houses  of  sawing  marble  to  produce  a  -f-in.  slab,  and 
cementing  these,  after  they  have  been  cut  to  the  sizes 
required,  on  to  a  backing  of  low-priced  marble  or  other 
suitable  material  of  similar  thickness,  the  composite  slabs 
being  then  sanded  and  polished  on  the  rotary  machines  in 
the  usual  course.  The  material  most  in  use  for  backing 
is  known  to  the  trade  as  Belgian  or  Petit  Gran  it.  This  is 
a  carboniferous  limestone,  somewhat  similar  in  formation 
and  appearance  to  dark  Hopton-Wood  stone,  and  is 
obtainable  in  large  sizes  and  at  comparatively  small  cost. 


CRAMPING  AND   STOPPING.  149 

Where  a  panelled  design  to  include  bands  of  different 
coloured  marbles  is  called  for,  this  method  makes  for 
economy  both  in  working  and  fixing.  It  also  admits 
of  finer  jointing  being  obtained  than  would  be  the  case 
were  each  slab  to  be  fixed  separately,  while  for  the 
more  expensive  marbles  the  reduction  effected  in  the 
substitution  of  a  backing — the  first  cost  of  which  is  less 
than  2s.  per  foot  cube,  for  material  costing  165.  or  over- 
is  appreciable  even  after  the  cost  of  the  additional  sawing 
and  cementing  is  taken  into  consideration. 

The  system,  however,  cannot  be  recommended  for 
the  best  class  of  work.  While  the  utmost  care  may  be 
exercised  in  cementing  the  backing  to  the  faced  marble, 
the  slabs  are  apt  to  spring  the  one  from  the  other,  and, 
once  this  happens,  a  thoroughly  satisfactory  job  cannot 
be  secured.  Alterations  that  may  be  necessary  in  work 
after  it  arrives  on  the  building,  too,  are  most  difficult  to 
carry  out  in  the  backed  material,  and  in  fixing  the  work 
it  is  necessary  to  insert  the  cramps  and  dowels  that  are 
used  between  the  backing  and  the  faced  marble,  when,  if 
settlement  afterwards  occurs  in  the  building,  every  cramp 
becomes  a  small  lever  with  a  tendency  to  force  the  slabs 
apart.  The  faced  work  is  also  liable  to  work  loose  from  the 
backing  if  the  building  is  subjected  to  any  considerable 
amount  of  vibration.  In  any  case  a  stringent  guarantee 
should  be  required  from  the  firm  supplying  such  material 
to  replace  any  slabs  that  may  become  defective  as  a  result 
of  the  loosening  of  the  backing. 

Some  of  the  coloured  marbles  are  liable  to  contain  flaws 
or  vents,  and  when  these  are  apparent,  either  in  slabs  or 
moulded  work,  cramps  are  inserted  on  the  under  side  of 
the  material  to  prevent  development.  Where  a  backing 


150       MARBLE   AND  MARBLE  WORKING. 

is  used  for  slab  work,  cramping  is  generally  considered 
unnecessary.  The  surface  of  the  marble  has,  wherever 
necessary,  to  be  filled  in  with  an  artificial  medium.  This  is 
generally  a  part  of  the  polisher's  work.  A  perfect  medium 
for  filling  cranks  and  vents  in  marble  has  yet  to  be  found. 
It  should  be  capable  of  being  coloured  to  the  desired 
shade,  impervious  after  application  to  heat  or  moisture,  and 
of  a  nature  to  take  and  retain  a  polish  equal  to  that  of  the 
marble.  Most  polishers  make  up  their  own  preparations, 
the  principal  ingredients  being  gum  shellac  mixed  with 
colouring  matter.  A  workman  possessed  of  skill  in  this 
direction  is  seldom  wanting  employment  even  in  Belgium, 
where  the  "  stopping  "  of  marble  is  exceptionally  well  done. 
The  types  of  machinery  described  in  the  present  chapter 
are  in  general  use  both  in  Great  Britain  and  on  the 
Continent,  and  it  is  worthy  of  note  in  this  connection 
that  the  machines  used  are  mainly  of  British  manufacture. 
In  fact,  it  may  be  stated  that  British  machinery  for 
marble  working  can  be  found  in  all  parts  of  the  world, 
and  that  the  shrewdness  of  the  purchasers  has  been 
justified  by  the  results  obtained.  In  the  more  recent 
developments  that  have  taken  place  in  Germany  and 
Great  Britain,  it  has  been  possible  to  make  greater  use 
of  the  more  recent  appliances,  there  being  no  accumulation 
of  machinery  of  older  type. 


151 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

Marble  Working  in  the  United  States— American  Machinery  Described  and 

Compared. 

THE  greatest  development  that  has  taken  place  in  the 
marble  industry  has  occurred  in  the  United  States  of 
America.  Mention  has  already  been  made  of  the  progress 
that  has  taken  place  both  in  quarrying  and  quarrying 
appliances  (see  Chapter  III.,  p.  41,  etc.).  When  it  is 
remembered  that  the  output  of  American  quarries  during 
the  past  decade  has  increased  thirty-fold,  that  the  imports 
of  marble  in  block  have  not  diminished,  and  that  the 
exports  have  been  practically  nil,  it  will  readily  be  per- 
ceived that  the  growth  of  the  marble -working  industry 
has  been  phenomenal.  Another  point  of  interest  is  that 
while  the  importation  of  marble  in  block  continues,  the 
employment  of  worked  or  partly  worked  material,  other 
than  antique  work,  has  declined  to  a  considerable  extent. 
This  is  due  to  the  policy  inaugurated  by  the  late 
President  McKinley,  of  placing  a  tariff  on  material 
competing  with  national  productions,  varying  in  amount 
with  the  proportion  of  labour  that  had  been  expended  on 
its  preparation.*  The  result  has  not  only  been  to  give 


*  The  present  tariff  on  marble  imported  into  the  United  States  is 
as  follows : — 
Marble  of  all  kinds  (block,  rough,  or  squared),  per  cubic  foot   .   $0.65 

Onyx  in  block 1.50 

Slabs  or  paviog  tiles  of  marble  containing  not  less  than  4  super- 
ficial in.,  up  to  1  in.  thick,  per  super,  foot         .          .          .0.12 
Slabs  or  paving  tiles  of  marble  containing  not  less  than  4  super- 
ficial in.,  up  to  1J  in.  thick,  per  super,  foot        .          .          .0.15 


152       MARBLE   AND   MARBLE   WORKING. 

a  considerable  impetus  to  the  quarrying  industry,  but 
also  to  give  special  encouragement  to  the  working  both 
of  American  and  imported  marbles  in  the  country. 

At  the  time  of  the  introduction  of  the  tariff  the 
quarrying  trade  was  a  fluctuating  one,  subject  to  local 
difficulties  as  great,  if  not  greater,  than  those  prevailing 
in  the  British  industry.  The  entire  production  of  the 
Green  Mountains  of  Vermont,  the  most  prolific  of  the 
American  marble  fields,  was  then  valued  at  less  than 
£30,000.  To-day  one  concern  alone  operating  in  this 
district  has  an  annual  turnover  approaching  three-quarters 
of  a  million  sterling,  and  employs  over  3,000  workmen. 
Then  the  working  of  marble,  apart  from  building  and 
monumental  purposes,  could  hardly  be  said  to  exist. 
Several  of  the  principal  decorative  schemes  in  leading 
cities  were  carried  through  by  the  New  York  branch  of  a 
prominent  London  firm  (Burke  &  Co.),  who  obtained 
the  greater  part  of  their  marble,  worked  ready  for  fixing, 
from  an  equally  prominent  Belgian  house,  the  fixing 
alone  finding  employment  for  local  labour. 

Marble  is  used  in  the  United  States  for  building 
purposes  to  a  very  large  extent ;  but  the  decorative 
trade  is  now  a  large  and  increasing  one,  and,  since  the 
tariff  came  into  force,  but  few  instances  of  imported 
worked  marble,  other  than  works  of  antiquity,  are  on 

Slabs  or  paving  tiles  of  marble  containing  not  less  than  4  super- 
ficial in.,  up  to  2  in.  thick,  per  super,  foot          .          .          .  $0.18 
(If  rubbed  in  whole  or  part,  3  cents  per  super,  foot  additional.) 
Mosaic  cubes  of   marble,  onyx,  or   stone,  not    exceeding    2-in. 

cube  in  size,  if  loose,  per  pound  .  .  $0.01  and  20  per  cent. 
If  attached  to  paper  or  other  material,  per  super,  foot  ,  .  $0.20 
Manufactures  of  onyx,  alabaster,  etc.,  n.e.s.  .  .  .50  per  cent. 

Works  of  art  for  public  exhibition  or  public  monuments    .  .     Free 


AMERICAN  MARBLE  WORKING. 


153 


record.  That  the  immense  development  which  has  taken 
place  in  all  branches  of  the  industry  is  a  direct  result 
of  the  legislative  policy  that  has  been  adopted  is  beyond 


FIG.  55. 


ARCHITECTURAL   CARVING   EXECUTED   WITH   INGERSOLL    PNEUMATIC 

APPLIANCES,  NEW  YORK,  U.S.A. 

question.  It  encourages  the  quarrying  of  native  material, 
and  ensures  that  what  has  to  be  imported  comes  in, 
so  far  as  possible,  in  an  unworked  state,  thus  securing 


154        MARBLE   AND   MARBLE   WORKING. 

FIG.  56. 


A  SOUTH  DOVER  (U.S.A.)  MARBLE  QUARRY  IN  WORKING  ORDER. 
Opening  up  a  new  floor. 


THE   CARBORUNDUM   PROCESS.  155 

employment  for  American  work-people  rather  than  those 
of  another  country.  The  demand  for  labour  being  high,  its 
remuneration  rises  accordingly,  and  the  American  marble 
worker,  whether  employed  in  mine  or  quarry,  factory,  or 
fixing  on  a  building,  receives  higher  wages  and  works 
under  better  conditions  than  his  compeers  in  any  other 
part  of  the  world.  At  the  same  time  his  employer  keeps 
the  trade  and  makes  a  good  profit,  the  increased  prosperity 
of  the  country  enabling  higher  prices  to  be  secured,  the 
quality  and  finish  of  the  work  being  at  the  same  time 
improved.  Such  is  the  American's  justification  of  a  tariff 
on  marble.  Whatever  may  be  said  for  or  against  the 
protective  theory,  it  must  be  admitted  that,  so  far  as  the 
marble  industry  of  the  United  States  is  concerned,  the 
adoption  of  a  tariff  has  been  more  than  borne  out  by 
results. 

The  employment  of  abrasives  for  the  working  of  marble 
is  more  highly  developed  in  the  United  States  than  else- 
where. Carborundum*  is  the  medium  in  general  use,  and 
although  the  great  cutting  power  of  this  substance,  as 
applied  to  marble,  was  first  recognised  by  Offenbach,  of 
Germany,  Blanpain  &  Jaspart,  of  Paris,  and  Anderson, 
of  Carnoustie,  Scotland,  it  has  been  left  for  J.  Royden 
Pierce,  of  New  York,  to  apply  it  to  the  industry  generally, 
and  to  utilise  its  wonderful  properties  to  their  fullest  extent. 

The  entire  carborundum  process,  as  applied  in  leading 
American  factories,  may  be  briefly  described.  The  quarry- 
ing methods  in  force  permit  of  blocks  being  secured  to 
sizes  required,  and  these  are  converted  into  slabs  by 
ordinary  gang  saws.  The  slabs,  as  they  come  from  the 

*  See  Chapter  XII.,  p.  139. 


156       MARBLE  AND  MARBLE  WORKING. 

saw,  are  run  face  downwards  through  the  "  drum  rubber." 
This  consists  of  a  massive  steel  shaft  upon  which  is  slipped 
a  carborundum  sleeve,  the  slabs  passing  between  the  drum, 
which  is  revolving  at  high  speed,  and  an  iron  cylinder 
known  as  the  "  idler,"  the  latter  being  covered  with  a 

FIG.  57. 


QUARRYING  BLOCKS  TO  S.ZE,  KENNESAW,  GEORGIA,  U.S.A. 

Note  the  undercutting  of  the  quarry  wall  on  the  left  of  the  picture,  and 
Sullivan  Gadders  at  work  splitting  up  the  channelled  layers. 

thick  coating  of  rubber.  The  machine  will  wrork  slabs  up 
to  12ft.  in  length  and  6ft.  6  in.  in  width,  and  the  idler 
can  be  adjusted  to  work  material  up  to  12  in.  in  thickness. 
The  rubbed  slabs  (the  veining  and  colour  of  which  are 
distinctly  shown)  are  then  stored  in  the  yard.  Here  they 


THE   CARBORUNDUM  PROCESS. 


157 


are  selected,  matched,  and  the  sizes  to  which  they  are  to 
be  cut  marked  out  by  an  operative  known  as  a  "  marker." 
The  marked  slabs  are  taken  from  their  places  in  the 

FIG.  58. 


MATCHED  PANEL  OF  DARK  CREOLE  MARBLE,  GEORGIA,  U.S.A. 

bins  by  special  grappling  hooks,  and  placed  under  one  of 
the  copers.  (All  the  machines  must  be  under  travelling 
cranes.)  If  the  work  required  is  to  be  in  strips,  it  goes  to 
the  Gang  Coper,  the  strips  being  afterwards  cut  to  correct 


158       MARBLE  AND  MARBLE  WORKING. 

length  on  the   Cut-off  Coper.      Panels  or  scantlings  for 
mouldings  are  treated  on  the  Turning-head  Coper* 

In  all  cases  pieces  are  cut  to  exact  size,  leaving  perfect 
arrises  requiring  no  subsequent  treatment.  The  pieces 
are  next  conveyed  to  the  polishing  machines.  These  are 
equipped  with  special  polishing  rings,  composed  of  suitable 
abrasives,  which  become  finer  in  grit  as  the  finishing  pro- 
gresses. Narrow  bands  and  strips  are  polished  by  the 
automatic  base-feed  polishing  machine.  The  two-wheel 
moulder,  counter-sinking  machine,  and  lathe,  as  their 
names  indicate,  do  work  of  a  familiar  class  requiring  no 
description.  They  are  of  similar  working  principle  to 
those  already  described,  save  that  the  lathe  has  two  cutting 
heads,  carrying  carborundum  wheels  on  horizontal  spindles, 
and  two  fluting  heads  carried  on  vertical  spindles. 
Electrical  power  is  employed  throughout,  each  machine 
and,  in  the  case  of  the  lathe,  each  head  being  operated  by 
a  separate  motor. 

A  peculiarity  shown  in  marble  worked  by  the  car- 
borundum process  is  the  surface  finish  obtained,  whether 
in  slabs  or  mouldings.  The  first  operation  consisting  of  a 
regular  abrasive  action,  in  which  all  particles  are  removed 
in  one  direction,  the  surface  retains  an  indication  of  the 
process  throughout,  and  while  a  hard  semi-polish  is 
secured,  the  action  of  reflected  light  gives  what  may  best 
be  described  as  a  "silky  sheen."  This  may  be  varied  in 
surface  work  by  having  contiguous  slabs  rubbed  in  opposite 
directions,  making  the  woven  effect  vertical  in  one  piece 
and  horizontal  in  the  next.  This  effect  is  known  as  the 
"  spine  finish,"  and  can,  of  course,  be  varied  as  desired. 

*  A  "  Coper "  may  be  described  as  a  carborundum  circular  saw, 
the  names  given  to  the  respective  machines  indicating  their  use. 


FIG.. "59. 


THE  CARBORUNDUM  PROCESS  :  WORKS  INTERIOR  AT  RAVENSWOOD,  LONG  ISLAND, 
NEW  YORK.     (W.  BRADLEY  AND  SONS.) 

Reputed  to  be  the  largest  and  best-equipped  Marble  Works  in  the  world. 


[To  face  p.  158. 


THE   CARBORUNDUM  PROCESS.  159 

The  whole  of  the  machines  are  of  an  exceedingly 
heavy  type,  this  being  necessary  in  consequence  of  the 
vibration  otherwise  set  up,  consequent  on  the  high  speed 
at  which  carborundum  wheels  have  to  be  run  in  order  to 
obtain  the  best  results.  The  drum  rubber  weighs  20  tons, 
and  will  surface  from  800  to  1,200  ft.  super,  of  marble 
per  day  of  eight  hours,  the  amount  depending  on  the  kind 
of  marble,  size  of  slab,  and  quality  of  sawing.  Tt  requires 
65  h.p.  to  operate  it,  and  has  a  water  consumption  of 
100  gallons  per  minute.  The  two-wheeled  moulder  weighs 
12  tons,  and  will  work  a  moulding  of  8  in.  girth  con- 
taining six  members  (out  of  5^  in.  by  3^  in.  material)  at  the 
rate  of  10  in.  lineal  per  minute.  It  requires  35  h.p.  and 
30  gallons  of  water  per  minute.  The  lathe  (taking 
columns  up  to  20ft.  in  length  by  3^  ft.  diameter)  weighs 
40  tons,  and  requires  20  h.p.  for  the  operating  motor, 
and  25  h.p.  for  each  of  the  cutting  head  motors,  or  70  h.p. 
in  all. 

While  considerable  advantages  are  secured  in  the 
working  of  marble  by  the  entire  carborundum  process,  the 
writer  is  of  opinion  that,  under  existing  circumstances,  no 
European  factory  could  economically  utilise  the  system 
in  its  entirety.  The  ratio  between  power  and  pro- 
duction is  one  of  the  more  important  of  the  questions 
with  which  the  marble  manufacturer  has  to  deal,  and  it 
is  to  be  feared  that  the  power  required  to  operate  the 
entire  plant  puts  it  outside  the  range  of  practical 
working — at  any  rate,  in  the  leading  establishments 
of  Europe.  The  economic  efficiency  of  machinery  is 
dependent  upon  its  being  kept  in  regular  employment, 
and  as  the  output  of  even  the  largest  works  does 
not  approach  the  capabilities  of  the  drum  rubber 


160       MARBLE   AND   MAKBLE   WORKING. 

alone,  the  trade  would  have  both  to  concentrate  its 
working  and  develop  to  a  very  large  extent  before  the 
introduction  of  the  process  is  practicable.  Besides,  the 
entire  equipment  is  a  most  expensive  one,  and  would 
necessitate  the  discarding  of  existing  machinery ;  and  so 
long  as  the  importation  of  American  worked  marble  into 
British  and  Continental  centres  is  not  commercially 
possible,  or  until  it  is  seriously  competitive,  it  is  unlikely 
that  American  methods  of  working  will  be  introduced  this 
side  of  the  Atlantic. 


PLATE  IX. 


FROSTERLEY    (DURHAM)    MARBLE. 

[To  face  p.  161. 


161 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

Marble  Working:  A  British  Industry. 

WHILE  being  of  less  relative  importance  than  in 
Continental  countries,  the  art  of  working  in  marble  in 
Great  Britain  is  an  old-established  one.  Frosterley 
(Durham)  and  Purbeck  (Dorsetshire)  marbles  share  the 
distinction  of  being  the  earliest  known  varieties  to  be 
worked,  instances  of  the  use  of  each  of  these  marbles 
dating  back  to  the  twelfth  century.  The  columns  of 
Durham  Cathedral,  the  pavement  of  York  Minster,  and 
portions  of  the  tomb  of  Archbishop  Scrope  are  well-known 
instances  of  the  early  application  of  the  former  marble 
to  ecclesiastical  work  ;  with  the  latter,  the  cathedrals  of 
Winchester,  Worcester,  Lincoln,  and  Salisbury  will  serve 
as  illustrations  of  its  employment.  One  of  the  finest 
instances  of  the  use  of  Purbeck  marble  may  be  found  in 
the  tomb  of  Richard  Beauchainp,  Earl  of  Warwick,  in  the 
choir  of  St.  Mary's  Church,  Warwick.  The  cost  of  this 
is  given  as  being  for  the  marble,  carriage  to  Warwick, 
and  work,  £45.  Taking  the  high  value  of  money  in 
those  days  (beef  and  mutton  were  sold  at  ^d.  per  pound, 
veal  and  pork  |c/.,  wheat  3s.  4rf.  per  quarter,  etc.,  vide 
Pollock's  "  History  of  England"),  this  would  be 
equivalent  to  about  £800  at  the  present  time.  Petworth 
marble  was  used  in  Westminster  Abbey,  also  in  the 
cathedral  churches  of  Canterbury  and  Chichester.  Furness 
marble  was  employed  in  ancient  work  at  Holker  Hall, 
one  of  the  seats  of  the  Duke  of  Devonshire.  Anglesea 

M 


162       MAEBLE  AND   MARBLE  WORKING. 

marble  was  mentioned  by  Thomas  Pennant  in  1733,  and 
numerous  examples  exist  throughout  the  country  of  the 
employment  of  British  marbles  both  for  constructional  and 
decorative  purposes. 

The  first  instance  known  of  the  application  of  other 
than  hand  labour  for  sawing  marble  in  the  British  Isles 
was  the  establishment  of  the  Kilkenny  Marble  Mills, 
worked  by  water  power,  in  1730.  These  are  situated  on 
the  River  Nore,  some  two  miles  south  of  Kilkenny,  and 
the  .business,  though  on  considerably  improved  lines,  is 
still  in  existence. 

The  Devonshire  marbles  were  in  extensive  use  for 
church  buildings  in  Devonshire  and  Cornwall  throughout 
the  Mediaeval  period,  but  were  practically  unknown 
outside  their  local  areas  till  the  beginning  of  last  century. 
They  were  employed  to  a  small  extent  towards  the  close 
of  the  Georgian  period,  and  might  still  have  remained  in 
obscurity  but  for  the  energetic  efforts  of  the  Torquay  and 
Plymouth  marble  workers,  who  have  (the  former  especially) 
persistently  urged  their  claims  for  general  recognition. 
They  are  now,  however,  worked  to  a  considerable  extent, 
and  while  the  use  of  many  of  these  marbles  is  curtailed 
on  account  of  circumstances  already  referred  to,  but  slight 
encouragement  would  result  in  their  employment  being 
largely  increased. 

The  monumental  trade  is  mainly  an  imported  one, 
only  the  lettering  and  fixing  giving  employment,  in  the 
majority  of  instances,  to  home  workers.  Occasionally, 
what  is  known  in  the  trade  as  "  purpose-made  "  work  is 
required,  and  only  in  such  cases  is  the  work  carried  out  in 
this  country.  It  is  possible,  with  the  extended  use  of 
Greek  marble,  for  this  to  be  remedied  somewhat ;  but 


BRITISH  MARBLE  WORKING. 


163 


failing  such  use,  the  probabilities  of  a  revival  of  British 
working  in  the  monumental  trade  are,  under  existing 
circumstances,  remote. 

Marble  for  shop-fitting  is  generally  required  at  short 


FIG.  60. 


BRITISH  MARBLE  WORKING  :   THE  SAW  FRAMES,  TORQUAY. 

notice,  and,  so  far  as  this  branch  of  the  industry  is 
concerned,  British  firms  have  a  distinct  advantage  over 
Continental  houses.  The  tendency  to  specialise  in  work 
of  this  description  is  apparent,  and  business  houses  who 
make  this  class  of  work  their  leading  line  are  mostly  able 

M  2 


164       MARBLE  AND   MARBLE  WORKING. 

to  hold  their  own.  It  is  noticeable  that  a  workman 
engaged  in  this,  or  any  higher  branch  of  the  industry, 
does  not  take  kindly  to  the  "  tombstone  trade,"  and 
only  reverts  thereto  when  he  entirely  fails  to  find 
employment  in  other  branches  of  the  industry. 

Sanitary  fittings  and  work  in  the  lower-priced 
coloured  marbles  are  sometimes  undertaken  by  shop- 
fitting  firms.  This,  however,  only  happens  when  there 
is  insufficient  time  to  have  the  work  executed  abroad, 
and  even  then  there  is  generally  keen  competition 
with  houses  that  supply  decorative  marbles  as  their 
principal  line. 

Hospital  fittings  and  electrical  work  both  call  for 
extreme  accuracy,  both  of  workmanship  and  fixing,  and 
work  of  this  description  is  usually  undertaken  by  firms 
making  a  speciality  of  decorative  work,  their  appliances 
being  better  suited  to  ensure  these  requirements. 

The  greatest  amount  of  progress  that  has  taken  place 
in  the  marble  industry  of  the  country  of  late  years  is  to 
be  found  in  the  working  of  marble  for  decorative  purposes. 
In  Ireland  works  have  been  erected  at  Gal  way  City  for 
the  manipulation  of  the  Connemara  marbles ;  extensions 
have  also  been  made  in  Dublin  and  Kilkenny ;  in 
Glasgow  the  leading  firm  of  marble-workers  have 
considerably  enlarged  their  working  facilities ;  expansions 
have  occurred  both  in  Derbyshire  and  Devonshire,  while 
in  London  and  the  immediate  neighbourhood  considerable 
extensions  have  been  carried  out  by  several  firms 
(including  the  building  and  equipment  of  a  new  factory 
at  Camden  Town),  and  works  have  been  erected  at  Hayes, 
Middlesex,  that  are  stated  to  be  the  second  largest  in 
Europe. 


BRITISH  MARBLE   WORKING. 


165 


The  worker  of  marble  in  Great  Britain  has  several 
difficulties  to  contend  with  that  are  out  of  the  ordinary 
run.  He  has  to  be  either  a  holder  of  large  stocks  of 
expensive  material,  some  of  which  may  not  be  required 


FIG.  61. 


BRITISH  MARBLE  WORKING  :   INTERIOR  OF  THE  MARBLE  WORKS,  TORQUAY. 

for  several  years,  or  must  keep  in  close  touch  with  sources 
of  supply  extending  over  an  increasingly  wide  area, 

The  equipment  of  the  works  is  a  matter  of  considerable 
expense.  A  travelling  crane,  capable  of  lifting  from 
10  to  15  tons,  is  an  absolute  necessity,  and  hand  cranes 


166       MARBLE  AND   MARBLE  WORKING. 


BRITISH  MAEBLE   WORKING.  167 

to  almost  as  great  strength  must  be  supplied  to  traverse 
the  workshops.  A  large  amount  of  costly  machinery, 
some  of  which  will  probably  be  idle  for  a  considerable 
portion  of  each  year,  must  be  maintained.  Estimates 
have  to  be  made  up  several  months,  and  in  some  cases 
years,  before  the  work  can  be  put  in  hand,  and  the 
manufacturer  has  to  take  all  risks  of  variations  in  the  cost 
of  the  material  during  the  intervening  period.  In  addition 
to  this,  he  must  be  provided  with  a  considerable  floating 
capital  to  provide  for  wages  and  current  charges  on  work 
he  may  secure.  The  greater  part  of  the  material  required 
must  be  purchased,  and  both  the  material  and  the  labour 
employed  on  its  working  paid  for,  some  time  before  a 
possible  payment  on  account  can  be  expected.  The 
amount  of  capital  required  in  proportion  to  the  turnover 
is  consequently  high,  and  the  difficulties  encountered  in 
establishing  the  industry  very  considerable. 

The  fact  that  work  of  a  high-class  description  can  be 
executed  in  this  country  has  been  demonstrated,  amongst 
others,  by  Messrs.  Farmer  &  Brindley,  of  London,  who 
have  carried  out  several  important  contracts  at  different 
times,  employing  British  labour  throughout.  Well-known 
instances  are  the  reredos  at  St.  Paul's  Cathedral,  the 
staircase,  etc.,  of  the  National  Liberal  Club,  the  later 
extensions  of  the  National  Gallery,  etc.  The  marble 
work  at  the  Great  Central  and  Great  Eastern  hotels  of 
London  is  British  worked,  by  far  the  greater  part  of  the 
work  being  executed  at  Glasgow  by  Messrs.  Galbraith  & 
Winton,  who  have  also  carried  out  several  important 
marble  contracts  in  various  parts  of  Great  Britain,  the 
entire  work  being  of  home  manufacture.  The  use  of 
British  alabaster  for  general  decorative  work  is  extensive, 


168       MARBLE  AND  MAEBLE  WORKING. 

and  considerable  quantities  of  this  material  are  worked 
at  Uttoxeter  (Staffs)  and  in  Derby,  as  well  as  by 
ecclesiastical  sculptors  in  various  parts  of  tlie  country. 
The  best  instance  of  the  employment  of  this  material 
is,  in  the  writer's  opinion,  to  be  found  in  the  interior 
decoration  of  the  Guards'  Chapel,  Wellington  Barracks, 
S.W.  The  whole  of  the  work  was  executed  in  the  shops  of 
Messrs.  Burke  &  Co.,  then  of  Newman  Street,  W.  The 
productions  of  H.  T.  Jenkins  &  Sons,  and  W.  Blackler  & 
Sons,  of  Torquay  (Devonshire  marbles),*  and  the  Hopton- 
Wood  Stone  Firms  (Derbyshire  marbles),  too,  are  well 
known  in  architectural  circles,  as  are  several  of  the 
schemes  carried  out  by  T.  Emley  &  Sons,  of  Newcastle- 
on-Tyne,  Whitehead  &  Sons,  The  Art  Pavements  and 
Decorations,  Limited,  Anselm  Odling  &  Co.,  Walton, 
Gooddy  &  Cripps,  Greenbank  &  Edmondson,  of  London  ; 
Watts  of  Colchester,  etc. 

The  principal  effort  that  has  been  made  in  this 
direction,  however,  is  that  of  Arthur  Lee  &  Brothers, 
Limited,  at  Hayes,  Middlesex.  In  1902  this  firm  built 
and  equipped  an  up-to-date  factory  for  the  working  of 
large  contracts,  which,  as  far  as  its  equipment  is  con- 
cerned, compares  favourably  with  the  finest  establish- 
ment on  the  Continent  (see  Fig.  63).  The  progress 
that  has  been  made,  although,  perhaps,  not  so  great 
as  the  promoters  of  the  venture  desired,  has  not  been 
unsatisfactory.  The  work  that  has  been  executed  at 
Hayes  includes  the  marble  work  for  the  entrance  hall, 

*  The  interior  decoration  of  Lloyd's  Registry,  Fenchurch  Street, 
E.G.,  is  a  fine  illustration  of  the  employment  both  of  British  labour 
and  British  marble.  The  marbles  are  principally  from  Devonshire, 
the  work  being  executed  by  Messrs.  Jenkins. 


[To  face.  p.  168. 


ADVANTAGES  SECURED  BY  HOME  WORKING.  169 

corridors,  etc.,  at  the  new  Sessions  House,  Old  Bailey, 
the  University  College,  Birmingham,  the  National 
Provincial  Bank,  Aberystwyth,  besides  several  private 
house  interiors  and  contracts  of  smaller  extent  situated  in 
various  parts  of  the  country.  As  many  of  these  contracts 
have  been  obtained  in  open  competition  with  firms 
supplying  Continental-worked  marble,  it  is  evident  that 
it  is  possible  for  work  of  this  description  to  be  done  in 
this  country. 

The  advantages  to  be  obtained  by  placing  marble  work 
at  home  rather  than  abroad  are  many.  The  chief  of  them 
may  be  briefly  enumerated,  (a)  The  risk  of  error  in 
interpreting  drawings  is  reduced  to  a  minimum,  it  being 
always  possible  to  submit  a  doubtful  point  to  the  designer 
as  soon  as  it  arises.  A  more  correct  interpretation  of  the 
scheme  the  architect  has  in  view  is  therefore  secured  than 
would  otherwise  obtain,  (b)  Setting  out  can  be  done  to 
greater  advantage,  the  building  for  which  the  work  is 
intended  always  being  accessible  for  measurement.  A 
wall  slightly  out  of  position  can  be  arranged  for,  otherwise 
it  may  make  a  considerable  difference  in  the  appearance 
of  the  work  when  completed  and  fixed,  (c)  The  risk  of 
breakages  is  greatly  reduced,  and,  when  they  occur, 
replacements  can  be  effected  with  the  smallest  amount  of 
delay.  This  is  a  matter  of  increasing  importance  in  view 
of  the  high  price  of  land  and  rental  values  in  our  large 
centres  of  population.  (d)  Minor  alterations  can,  when 
required,  be  arranged  for  without  an  undue  expenditure 
either  of  time  or  money.  These,  while  often  adding 
to  the  attractiveness  of  an  interior,  are  not  always 
practicable  where  Continental-worked  marble  is  con- 
cerned, (e)  The  working  can  be  arranged  and  the 


170       MARBLE  AND  MARBLE  WORKING. 

delivery  of  consignments  to  the  building  regulated  so  as 
to  keep  the  fixers  continuously  in  employment,  at  the 
same  time  saving  storage  room  for  work  not  required. 
The  convenience  both  of  the  contractor  and  specialist 
is  thus  studied,  to  the  advantage  of  all  concerned. 
(/)  Effective  supervision  can  be  exercised  by  the  architect 
over  the  material  used  and  workmanship  displayed  in  the 
execution  of  his  design.  This  is  not  possible  where  the 
work  is  of  foreign  origin. 

Perhaps  the  greatest  advantage  of  all  is  that  the 
architect  knows  with  whom  he  is  dealing.  The  writer  has 
had  experience  of  both  ways  of  doing  business,  and  may 
perhaps  be  allowed  to  point  out  the  difficulties  that  are 
bound  to  exist  where  the  firm  that  is  executing  work  of 
this  description  is  not  brought  into  contact  with  the 
principal  contracting  party.  All  instructions  are  given 
at  second  or  third  hand,  and  explanations  of  delays  in 
working  (and  these  are  not  uncommon)  handed  on, 
sometimes  modified  and  sometimes  embellished,  oft-times 
without  actual  knowledge  as  to  their  correctness  ;  and 
while  the  responsibility  of  the  work  rests  with  the  firm 
tendering,  the  fact  of  its  execution  by  a  third  party 
who  is  outside  the  actual  contract  often  results  in 
inefficiency.  On  the  other  hand,  where  the  contracting 
firm  is  actually  doing  the  work,  no  excuse  can  possibly 
remain  for  inaccurate  working  or  for  avoidable  delay, 
the  parties  being  in  touch  each  with  the  other 
throughout. 

Fixing  is  in  all  cases  carried  out  by  local  labour.  The 
correct  position  of  the  floor  levels,  centres  of  openings,  etc., 
are  first  set  out  on  the  building,  and  the  fixing  proceeded 
with,  starting  at  floor  level.  The  marble  is  secured  to  the 


THE  FIXING  OF  MARBLE.  171 

wall  by  cramping,  holes  being  driven  into  the  wall  to 
receive  the  cramps,  which  are  set  in  plaster  of  Paris,  the 
joints  being  stopped  with  a  mastic  of  similar  colour  to  the 
marble.  Marble  facings  in  courses  are  sometimes  fixed 
by  dowels  on  the  lower  edge,  securing  the  slab  to  the 
course  below,  and  cramps  on  the  upper  edge,  securing 
the  slab  to  the  wall.  The  material  used  for  cramping 
is  either  copper,  brass,  or  galvanised  iron  wire  of  £  in. 
diameter.  (The  use  of  the  latter  material  is  not  recom- 
mended.) For  all  slab  work  an  air  space  of  not  less  than 
|  in.  should  be  provided  between  the  backs  of  the  slabs 
and  the  wall  of  the  building.  Unless  this  is  done,  damp 
from  the  walls  will  penetrate  the  marble,  causing 
efflorescence.  Heavy  cornices  are  secured  in  position  by 
long  cramps,  the  size,  shape,  and  material  of  which  are 
generally  specified  by  the  architect.  Columns  should  be 
secured  by  dowels  of  not  less  than  \  in.  diameter, 
stouter  sizes  being  requisitioned  for  heavy  columns. 
These  may  be  either  of  slate  or  of  some  non-corrosive 
metal.  Iron,  even  if  galvanised,  should  not  be  used  for 
this  purpose. 

Marble  work  is  generally  coated  with  a  wax  solution 
before  leaving  the  factory,  so  as  to  protect  the  surface 
from  dust  and  scratches.  This  is  cleaned  off  after  the 
entire  work  is  fixed. 

The  development  that  is  taking  place  in  the  use  of 
marble  for  building  purposes  calls  for  more  than  a  passing 
mention.  Early  in  1907  the  order  was  placed  with  Messrs. 
Arthur  Lee  &  Brothers  to  work  the  material  for  the  first 
erection  in  Pentelikon  marble  in  this  country.  To-day 
work  of  an  aggregate  value  of  over  £80,000  is  either  in 
hand  or  completed,  and  further  erections  in  the  material 


172       MAKBLE  AND  MARBLE  WORKING. 

are  under  consideration.  Much  uncertainty  prevails  as  to 
how  this  work  is  to  be  carried  out,  builders,  monumental 
and  stone  masons  all  being  anxious  to  see  what  they  can 
do  in  the  matter.  A  word  to  the  wise  is  sufficient.  Only 
those  knowing  the  nature  of  marble  can  work  the  material 
to  advantage.  It  always  has  been  and  always  will  be  a 
specialised  industry,  and  sooner  or  later  must  revert  to 
"  the  trade."  In  the  same  way  as  it  takes  an  Aberdeen  or 
Dalbeattie  man  to  work  granite  to  advantage,  so  the 
marble  mason  will  ultimately  hold  his  own,  and  the 
efforts  of  those  outside  the  business  to  take  a  hold  can 
only  result  in  the  buying  of  experience. 


173 


CHAPTER  XV. 

Marble  Substitutes  and  Imitations. 

THE  increase  that  has  taken  place  of  recent  years  in  the 
use  of  marble  has  induced  inventors  to  search  for  some 
medium  that  should  be  available  for  the  various  purposes 
for  which  the  material  is  used,  and  by  which  a  profit 
could  be  realised.  Products  of  this  nature  come  on  the 
market  from  time  to  time,  most  of  them  bearing  some 
high-sounding  appellation  of  which  the  word  marble  forms 
a  part.  Some  are  called  after  their  inventor ;  others  are 
given  a  name  calculated,  in  the  mind  of  its  originator,  to 
convey  some  idea  of  the  substance  produced,  often  with 
no  more  success  in  this  respect  than  their  product  obtains 
in  the  public  estimation.  It  is  possible  that  many  of  the 
substances  produced  may  be  available  as  decorative 
mediums,  but  it  can  be  generally  stated  that  none  of  these 
productions  are  marble,  that  few  of  them  are  good 
imitations  of  marble,  and  that  in  some  instances  it 
requires  an  effort  of  the  imagination  even  to  term  them 
decorative. 

Of  the  many  attempts  that  have  been  made  to  produce 
marble  artificially,  but  one  has  come  within  a  measurable 
distance  of  success.  The  patented  process  of  Mr.  T.  M. 
Thorn,  now  being  worked  by  the  British  Stone  and  Marble 
Company,  Limited,  has  approached  nearer  to  an  actual 
reproduction  of  Nature's  handiwork  than  has  any  other ; 
and  while  one  thoroughly  familiar  with  the  natural 
product  would  not  be  likely  to  mistake  it  for  the 


174       MARBLE  AND   MARBLE  WORKING. 

Company's  article,  the  similarity  is,  in  many  instances, 
remarkable.  The  process  may  shortly  be  described  as 
follows.  The  chemical  constituents  of  the  marble  to  be 
produced  having  been  ascertained,  debris  of  calcareous, 
dolomitic,  or  carbonaceous  limestones,  or  substances 
possessing  similar  chemical  composition,  is  secured,  and, 
after  analysis,  is  calcined ;  the  carbon  dioxide  generated 
being  collected,  liquefied,  and  stored  for  use  at  a  later 
stage.  The  residuum  is  then  withdrawn,  ground,  and 
slaked,  the  various  minerals  present  in  the  marble  to  be 
reproduced  being  added,  if  required,  at  an  intermediate 
stage  in  the  process,  thus  giving  the  necessary  colouring 
matter  and  reproducing,  as  far  as  possible,  the  natural 
formation.  The  plastic  material  is  next  conveyed  to  an 
hydraulic  press,  and  pressure  is  regulated  so  as  to  conform 
to,  or  be  higher  than  that  of,  the  natural  stone.  After 
being  dried,  the  slabs  are  placed  in  a  cylinder,  a  vacuum 
created,  and  the  liquefied  gas  previously  stored  fed 
thereto.  Pressure  is  applied  as  required,  until  the  matrice 
becomes  impregnated,  forming  a  carbonate  of  equal  or 
higher  specific  gravity  than  the  natural  marble,  and  of 
identical  chemical  composition.  Microscopical  examination 
shows  the  structure  of  the  reconstructed  product  to  be 
crystalline  throughout. 

It  is  claimed  for  Mr.  Thorn's  process  that  stone  can  be 
reproduced  that  is  harder  and  more  reliable  than  the 
natural  production,  and  that  cannot  be  distinguished  by 
ordinary  means  from  the  original  article,  and  so  far  as 
chemical,  physical,  and  microscopical  tests  are  concerned, 
the  claim  is  borne  out.  Several  of  the  unicoloured  and 
carbonaceous  marbles  are  reproduced  with  marked 
similarity,  and  with  certain  of  the  variegated  kinds  a 


RECONSTRUCTED   MARBLE.  175 

close  resemblance  is  discernible.  The  crystalline  structure 
of  the  re-made  stone  is  apparent  on  fracture,  and  the 
surface  being  polished  by  similar  methods,  it  presents  a 
like  appearance  to  that  of  natural  marble.  Some  difficulty 
is  experienced,  however,  in  reproducing  the  crystalline 
veining  which  gives  to  many  of  the  variegated  marbles 
their  distinctive  appearance,  and  the  process  is  not  quite 
successful  either  with  the  saccharoidal  or  laminated 
varieties,  while  the  fossiliferous,  brecciated,  and  serpen- 
tinous  varieties,  as  well  as  the  travertines,  have  up  to 
the  present  defied  imitation. 

The  process  enables  any  desired  tint  to  be  given  to  the 
material,  and  its  wearing  qualities  are  guaranteed  to  be  at 
least  equal  to  Nature's  productions. 

Reconstructed  Sicilian  marble  was  selected  for  linino- 

o 

the  walls  of  the  operating-rooms  at  the  Manchester  Royal 
Infirmary,  opened  last  year. 

One  of  the  Company's  productions  (reconstructed 
Portland  stone)  was  used  in  1906  for  the  erection  of 
premises  at  13,  City  Road,  E.C.  The  specific  gravity  of 
this  stone  is  given  as  2*59  against  2 '145  of  natural 
Portland  stone,  and  the  crushing  strain  is  much  higher 
than  that  of  natural  stone.  Microscopical  examination 
shows  that  the  special  characteristics  of  the  original  stone 
are  present  in  the  re-made  article,  and  that  the  perfection 
of  the  cohesion  throughout  the  mass  is  due  to  the 
uniformity  of  the  crystallisation  of  the  calcium  carbonate 
in  the  matrix  in  all  parts  of  the  block.  The  stone  has 
given  satisfaction  both  to  the  architect  and  contractor 
using  it.  At  the  time  of  writing,  its  resistance  to 
atmospheric  action  has  been  equal  to  the  patentee's 
claim,  but  the  future  alone  can  settle  its  correctness. 


176       MAEBLE  AND  MAEBLE  WOEKING. 


FIG.  64. 


No.  13,  CITY  ROAD,  LONDON,  E.G. 
The  first  building  to  be  erected  in  Reconstructed  Portland  Stone. 


SCAGLIOLA  MARBLE.  177 

Reconstructed  Ketton  stone  has  also  been  used  in  the 
Cheshunt  Free  Library,  the  material  being  practically 
indistinguishable  from  the  natural  production. 

One  of  the  most  extensively  used  marble  substitutes  is 
known  as  "  Scagliola "  Marble.  This  is  a  material  in 
considerable  use  for  decorative  schemes  in  cases  where 
time  will  not  permit  of  marble  being  supplied.  It  is 
capable  of  being  prepared  and  fixed  so  as  to  present  an 
unbroken  surface,  allowing  for  the  casing  of  iron  or  steel 
stanchions,  pillars,  etc.,  without  showing  a  joint.  This  is 
at  times  of  distinct  advantage.  The  process  is  Florentine 
in  origin,  has  been  extensively  employed  throughout 
Europe  since  its  revival  in  Italy  in  the  early  part  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  and  has  been  in  use  in  Great  Britain 
since  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century.  Scagliola  is 
entirely  a  decorative  medium.  Its  base  is  plaster  of  Paris, 
the  colouring  matter  being  added  and  the  face  hardened 
by  secret  processes,  the  application  of  which  is  carefully 
guarded.  The  material  is  principally  used  for  the  interior 
decoration  of  theatres,  hotels,  public  buildings,  etc.,  and 
was  at  one  time  in  extensive  use  for  private  house 
interiors.  While  the  surface  is  less  even  than  that  of 
marble,  it  presents  a  pleasing  appearance,  is  without  flaws, 
does  not  require  stopping,  and  takes  a  good  but  not 
brilliant  polish.  The  cost  of  Scagliola  is  rather  higher 
than  that  of  low-priced  decorative  marbles,  but  many 
architects  prefer  using  it  to  the  latter  for  comparatively 
inexpensive  work.  While  its  appearance  bears  no  com- 
parison with  the  richer  varieties  of  coloured  marbles,  the 
gain  of  time  secured  by  its  use  over  that  required  for 
the  preparation  and  fixing  of  the  latter  causes  it  to  be  in 
considerable  demand  for  good  class  work. 

N 


178       MARBLE  AND  MARBLE   WORKING. 

Venetian  and  Roman  mosaic  have  been  in  occasional 
use  for  many  years  past  as  dado  panelling,  the  upper  part 
being  decorated  in  the  usual  manner.  The  application  of 
marble  chippings  for  entire  surfaces  of  walls  is,  however, 
of  recent  date.  The  material  in  use  is  known  as  "  Patent 
Wall  Marble  Mosaic,"  and  consists  of  Sicilian  marble 
chippings  mixed  with  Portland  cement  and  vegetable 
colouring  matter,  the  brickwork  being  covered  with  the 
mixture  while  it  is  in  a  plastic  state  to  a  depth  of 
|  in.  (Steelwork,  etc.,  is  first  covered  with  expanded 
metal  or  other  suitable  material.)  This  is  well  worked 
in,  and  a  final  material  of  similar  nature,  the  marble 
chippings  being  of  a  rather  larger  size,  plastered  on  the 
top  and  screeded  off  to  a  level  face.  The  surface 
is  afterwards  rubbed  down  with  grit-stones  of  various 
fineness  until  a  dull  polish  is  obtained.  An  instance 
of  the  employment  of  the  material  in  London  is  the 
wall  linings  to  lavatories  at  Victoria  (S.E.  &  C.)  Railway 
Station,  S.W.  For  dadoes,  etc.,  a  combination  of  assorted 
marble  chippings  of  various  sizes  are  cemented  together, 
so  as  to  present  a  veined,  brecciated,  or  wavy  appearance. 
The  substance  was  first  used  in  1906  for  the  interior  of 
the  Liverpool  Cotton  Exchange,  and  is  in  considerable 
demand.  It  looks  well,  and  while  being  an  efficient 
substitute  for  marble  for  certain  purposes,  is  not,  and 
does  not  profess  to  be,  a  marble  imitation. 

An  opal  glass  wall  tile  of  ordinary  brick  size,  the 
surface  having  a  reproduction  of  various  marbles,  obtained 
by  a  photographic  process,  and  afterwards  burnt  in,  is 
sometimes  used.  The  writer  has  observed  several  instances 
where  this  medium  has  been  employed  for  wall  facing 
(exterior  and  interior).  It  is  supplied  in  various  shades, 


MANU-MAKBLE.  179 

but  the  whole  of  the  reproductions  are  of  identical 
markings  !  Brown  and  Green  St.  Anne's  are  certainly  not 
Nature's  productions,  and  the  combination  of  colour  and 
marking,  to  put  it  mildly,  presents  a  strange  appearance 
to  anyone  who  is  familiar  with  the  real  article. 
Where  the  natural  colour  is  used,  a  sample  tile,  viewed 
from  the  face,  bears  a  remarkable  resemblance  to  the 
marble  that  is  copied ;  but  viewed  in  situ  the  repetition  of 
the  same  patterns  in  9  in.  by  3  in.  close-jointed  tiles 
becomes  monotonous.  What  it  is  like  when  presented  in 
a  colour  altogether  foreign  to  the  marble  the  reader  may 
imagine,  or,  by  exercising  his  faculties  of  observation,  may 
see  for  himself.  The  material  appears  to  be  brittle,  and 
the  edges  of  the  tiles  become  chipped  with  the  smallest 
amount  of  rough  usage,  presenting  a  most  unsightly 
appearance.  It  is,  however,  seriously  recommended  as  a 
substitute  for,  and  of  similar  appearance  to,  marble  for 
shop  fronts,  lobbies,  stall  boards,  etc.,  and  is  so  used. 

The  material  sold  under  the  name  of  "  Manu- 
Marble"  is  in  considerable  demand  both  for  floors  and 
for  purposes  of  decoration.  It  is  claimed  for  this  product 
that  the  chemical  composition  is  similar  to  that  of  marble, 
with  none  of  the  flaws  and  vents  prevalent  in  the  real 
article,  and  that  the  colours  go  right  through  ;  also  that 
the  material  has  all  the  natural  and  artistic  properties 
of  real  marble.  This,  in  the  writer's  opinion,  is  hardly 
correct.  The  principal  chemical  constituent  (CaC03)  is 
common  to  such  widely  differing  substances  as  mountain 
limestone,  several  varieties  of  marble,  and  chalk ;  and  in 
this  respect  the  claim  advanced  is  correct.  But  while 
the  material  is  micro-crystalline  in  structure,  its  specific 
gravity  is  slightly  lower  than  that  of  marble  ;  it  is  of 

N  2 


180       MARBLE  AND   MARBLE  WORKING. 

less  hardness,  and,  when  tested  by  immersion  in  water, 
absorbs  from  five  to  eight  per  cent,  of  its  weight.  With 
regard  to  its  claims  from  an  artistic  standpoint,  the 
entrance  hall  and  staircase  of  the  new  St.  James's  Hall, 
Great  Portland  Street,  W.,  is  lined  with  Manu-Marble, 
and  readers  desirous  of  satisfying  themselves  on  the  point 
may  compare  this  with  genuine  marble  decorative  work. 
(In  this  instance  the  staircase  balustrade  and  pedestal 
cappings  are  executed  in  St.  Anne's  Marble,  the  body 
of  the  pedestals  and  the  lower  string  course,  as  well  as 
the  door  architraves,  being  in  Manu-Marble  of  somewhat 
similar  colour  tone  and  marking.)  The  material  appears 
sound  in  structure,  the  colours  are  permanent,  and  the 
cost  is  little  over  that  of  glazed  tiles.  It  is  suited  for  use 
in  cases  where  lowness  of  cost  has  to  be  the  main 
consideration,  and  where  what  may  be  described  as  a 
"  marble  effect "  is  sought  to  be  obtained  without  the 
expense  of  securing  the  genuine  material. 

A  material  of  recent  introduction  is  described  as 
"Fassio"  Marble.  This  is  frankly  a  marble  imitation. 
It  does  not  claim  to  be  equal  to  marble,  or  of  similar 
chemical  composition,  or  of  having  any  claim  other  than 
that  of  a  decorative  medium  giving  a  "  marble  effect," 
and  available  for  use  where  marble  cannot  be  employed 
on  account  of  its  cost.  The  groundwork  of  the  material 
is  a  non-flammable  substance,  of  similar  nature  to 
fibrous  plaster,  but  with  a  prepared  face  impregnated 
with  a  representation  of  the  colouring  and  markings  of 
the  marble  desired,  and  treated  with  a  secret  process  which 
hardens  the  face,  the  slabs  being  polished  in  the  ordinary 
manner.  The  thickness  of  the  finished  slabs  does  not 
exceed  T3^in.,  and  they  can  be  cut  and  fitted  with  a  stout 


INEFFICIENCY  OF  MARBLE  SUBSTITUTES.  181 

pocket-knife.  The  material  is  available  either  for  new 
work  or  for  renovations  ;  its  appearance  is  not  unattractive, 
the  colouring  is  permanent,  and  the  polish  is  of  high 
grade.  It  will  not,  however,  stand  rough  usage,  and  is 
best  employed  in  conjunction  with  a  dado  of  greater 
resistance  to  hard  knocks  than  obtains  with  the  "  marble  " 
itself.  For  this  purpose  slabs  are  supplied  to  a  thickness 
of  |  in.  The  material  is  low  in  price — is,  in  fact,  the  most 
inexpensive  decorative  medium  of  its  kind  on  the  market, 
and,  where  suitably  employed,  is  of  considerable  utility. 
It  presents  a  good  appearance,  and  while  not  being  or 
pretending  to  be  marble,  is,  for  purposes  where  lowness 
of  cost  is  the  principal  consideration,  an  efficient  substitute. 
Generally  speaking,  while  certain  of  the  productions 
sold  as  marble  imitations  or  substitutes  have  an  attractive 
appearance,  and  are  suitable  for  use  in  approved  positions, 
it  is  a  straining  of  terms  to  call  them  "  marble  "  or  even 
to  class  them  with  the  material.  They  are  only  applicable 
for  employment  in  place  of  the  real  article  in  cases  where 
considerations  of  time  and  cost  are  prevalent,  and  can 
hardly  be  utilised  for  good  class  work.  Their  principal 
recommendation  for  favourable  consideration  is,  in  the 
majority  of  cases,  that  they  are  cheap.  The  writer  is 
impelled  to  observe  that,  in  the  greater  number  of 
instances  that  have  come  under  his  observation — they 
look  it ! 


182 


CHAPTER   XVI. 

Practical   Points   for  Architects'   Consideration — Hints  on  the  Selection  of 

Marble. 

THE  majority  of  schemes  of  marble  decoration  are  carried 
out  on  competitive  lines,  and  in  many  cases  specifications 
are  either  entirely  absent  or  are  so  vaguely  worded  as 
hardly  to  be  regarded.  It  is  to  be  feared  that  this  policy 
does  not  result  in  the  best  either  of  material  or  workman- 
ship being  secured.  Severe  competition,  especially  in  the 
marble  trade,  often  results  in  the  Continent  being  ransacked 
for  low-priced  material,  and  rigid  economy  being  exercised 
in  the  labour  that  is  engaged  in  its  working.  When  it 
is  remembered  that  not  only  the  architect,  but  in  many 
instances  the  contractor  supplying  the  work,  sees  and 
knows  nothing  respecting  the  quality  of  the  material 
that  is  being  supplied  until  after  the  arrival  of  the 
various  consignments,  and  that,  in  the  event  of  this 
differing  from  the  samples  submitted,  the  defence  of 
natural  variations  in  the  material  can  always  be  set  up, 
it  is  not  surprising  to  find  that  in  many  cases  work 
does  not  come  up  to  one's  expectations.  Under  the 
circumstances  it  is  only  possible  to  supply  average  quality 
material,  or  something  inferior  thereto.  To  quote  for 
material  of  the  best  grade,  costing  10  or  20  per 
cent,  additional  to  that  your  competitors  may  offer,  is 
not  a  policy  that  commends  itself  to  the  business  man, 
but  one  that  if  adopted  would  soon  land  him  in  the 
Bankruptcy  Court.  The  consideration  that  must  obtain 


WHY  DEFECTIVE  MARBLE  IS   USED.      183 

is  uot  what  best  can  be  supplied  so  much  as  what  it 
is  possible  to  get  passed. 

Architects  are  themselves  largely  to  blame  for  this 
state  of  affairs.  They  have  in  several  instances  allowed 
the  trade  to  hint  to  them  what  they  should  or  should 
not  use ;  to  suggest  that  this  would  be  less  expensive, 
that  that  would  be  quicker  supplied,  and  that  the  other 
would  be  more  effective  ;  all  the  time  echoing  the  wishes 
and  desires  of  their  Continental  allies.  Attention  has 
seldom  been  paid  to  the  suitability  of  particular  marbles 
to  the  purposes  for  which  their  use  was  projected,  while 
the  soundness  or  otherwise  of  the  respective  varieties 
has  been  referred  to,  if  at  all,  in  the  most  casual  manner. 
These  methods  have  not  made  for  efficiency. 

The  marble  merchant,  too,  is  not  without  blame.  It 
is  not  a  rare  thing  to  see  at  the  heading  of  a  quotation 
for  marble  work  a  printed  statement  implying  that  all 
coloured  marbles  are  unsound,  and  are  only  supplied 
subject  to  the  firm  quoting  being  allowed  to  cramp,  stop, 
or  otherwise  treat  the  material.  This  may  have  been  less 
incorrect  twenty  years  ago  than  it  is  to-day.  Quarrying 
methods  have  improved  since  then,  and  new  varieties, 
many  of  them  of  sound  structure,  have  come  into  use. 
The  writer  has  no  hesitation  in  declaring  that  a 
statement  of  this  nature,  while  amply  covering  the 
supply  of  inferior  material,"  is  a  libel  on  marble.  It  is 
a  fact  that  a  large  proportion  of  the  coloured  marbles  in 
use  in  Great  Britain  can  be  supplied  free  from  flaws, 
vents,  or  faults  that  necessitate  cramping  either  previous 
to  or  during  working ;  and  while  the  number  requiring 
stopping  on  the  face  is  considerable,  there  are  several 
varieties  in  which  this  treatment  is  unnecessary,  save  in 


184       MARBLE   AND   MARBLE   WORKING. 

very  exceptional  cases.  If  it  were  made  a  condition  of 
contract  for  marble  work  that  no  material  which  had  been 
broken  in  working  should  be  used,  and  that  stopping  (save 
in  the  case  of  marbles  named  in  the  specification)  should 
not  be  resorted  to  for  other  than  filling  a  vein,  there 
would  be  less  shellac  used  in  the  works,  and  the  supply 
of  defective  cramped  marble  would  be  greatly  diminished. 
The  quality  of  the  material  supplied  would  thus  be 
considerably  improved,  and  that  without  any  appreciable 
increase  in  the  price  at  which  good  class  work  could  be 
obtained. 

The  matter  remains  in  the  hands  of  the  architect. 
It  is  he  who  decides  as  to  the  conditions  on  which  the 
work  is  placed,  and,  in  the  majority  of  cases,  he  is  the 
sole  arbitrator  as  to  the  efficiency  or  otherwise  of  the 
material  supplied.  If  he  be  content  to  place  his  work  in 
the  cheapest  market  and  on  the  contractor's  conditions, 
he  must  not  be  surprised  at  receiving  as  little  as  he  may 
be  induced  to  take.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  he  makes 
reasonable  conditions,  and  insists  on  their  fulfilment,  the 
quality  of  the  work  will  be  vastly  improved,  and  he  will 
obtain  the  gratitude  and  support  of  the  better  class 
manufacturers.  It  is  not  to  the  interest  of  good  class 
firms  either  to  supply  low-grade  material  or  to  employ 
poorly-paid  labour.  The  conditions  prevailing  in  the 
trade  force  them,  directly  or  indirectly,  to  do  both,  and 
until  a  definite  stand  is  taken  in  the  matter,  it  will 
neither  be  possible  for  the  best  to  be  secured  nor 
reasonable  for  it  to  be  expected. 

Hints  on  Selection. — The  selection  of  marbles  for 
decorative  schemes  that  are  projected  is  often  a  matter 
of  considerable  difficulty.  It  is  almost  impossible  to 


HINTS   ON   SELECTION.  185 

obtain  a  correct  impression  respecting  the  appearance  a 
marble  will  present  when  fixed  on  the  walls  of  a 
building  by  viewing  a  small  sample  piece,  and  large 
sample  slabs  are  both  expensive  to  secure  and  difficult  to 
handle.  Where  a  "  new  "  marble — i.e.,  one  not  previously 
in  ordinary  use — is  sought  to  be  introduced,  the  supply 
of  large  sample  slabs  showing,  as  far  as  possible,  the 
extreme  variation  of  colour  and  marking  in  the  bulk  of 
the  material  should  be  required,  and  information  should 
be  sought  for  respecting  the  suitability  of  the  material  for 
the  purpose  for  which  it  is  required,  the  place  where  it  is 
to  be  worked,  and  the  stocks  in  hand  and  available  for  the 
execution  of  the  contract.  With  marbles  in  ordinary  use, 
such  precautions,  while  to  some  extent  advisable,  may  not 
be  imperative.  It  is  often  possible  in  the  latter  case 
for  an  architect  himself  to  inspect  buildings  where  similar 
marbles  to  those  he  contemplates  using  have  been 
employed,  and  after  taking  into  consideration  the  varying 
effects  of  light  and  shade,  and,  where  necessary,  the  altered 
effect  produced  under  artificial  light,  arrive  at  a  conclusion 
respecting  the  suitability  of  the  marbles  inspected  for  the 
purpose  he  has  in  view. 

In  all  cases  it  is  advisable  to  reserve  the  right  of 
examination  and,  if  necessary,  the  rejection  of  the 
material  at  any  stage  of  its  manipulation,  and  to  make 
provision  for  such  examination  by  the  architect  or  building 
owner  or  their  representative  at  any  period  during  its 
working.  It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the  circumstances 
attending  the  later  stages  of  the  erection  of  a  building  are 
often  of  such  nature  that  time  is  of  even  greater  import- 
ance than  the  efficiency  of  the  material  used  for  decorative 
effect ;  that  the  replacement  of  faulty  material  is,  so  far 


186       MARBLE   AND   MARBLE   WORKING. 

as  marble  is  concerned,  a  lengthy  business ;  and  that  after 
a  building  is  occupied,  it  is  of  great  inconvenience  to  those 
in  possession  for  alterations  and  replacements  to  be 
proceeding.  It  is  to  be  feared  that  when  a  building  is 
close  on  completion  (and  where  delay  in  opening  means 
a  heavy  loss  in  prospective  rent  earned,  besides  outgoings 
that  have  to  be  paid),  much  is  allowed  to  pass  which 
would  have  been  rejected  if  supplied  during  the  earlier 
stages  of  the  work,  or  if  the  material  had  been  inspected 
before  being  put  in  hand  or  early  in  its  manipulation. 


PLATE  X. 


AGRELLEI     (CALABRIA,    ITALY), 


[To  face  p.  187. 


187 


SUPPLEMENTARY. 

List  of  Marbles  in  Ordinary  Use,  with  Descriptive  Notes  and  Instances  of 

their  Application. 

THE  list  of  marbles  presented  herewith  comprises  the 
leading  varieties  in  use  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland. 
It  is  within  the  writer's  experience  that  most,  if  not  all, 
of  the  marbles  used  in  the  provinces  are  also  to  be  found 
in  London  buildings  ;  further,  that  more  is  known 
generally  respecting  the  Metropolis  than  of  any  provincial 
centre,  and  this  has  led  to  his  confining  the  illustrations 
given  of  places  where  marbles  have  been  employed  to 
London  buildings.  The  instances  quoted  are  selected  not 
because  they  are  the  best  that  could  be  adduced,  but 
mainly  for  the  reason  that  they  are  accessible  without 
difficulty,  and,  in  the  majority  of  cases,  without  even  the 
formality  of  obtaining  permission  to  view.  So  far  as 
possible,  buildings  situated  on  main  thoroughfares  are 
taken  for  similar  reasons.  The  student  of  British  marbles 
should  not  fail  to  visit  the  Geological  Museum  in  Jermyn 
Street,  Piccadilly  ;  while  an  afternoon  spent  in  the  Koman 
Catholic  Cathedral,  Victoria  Street,  S.W.,  will  enable  him 
to  realise  something  of  the  dignity  and  grandeur  that  can 
be  expressed  in  this  medium  when  controlled  by  a  master 
hand.  A  description  of  the  marbles  used  is  given  in  the 
Guide  to  the  Cathedral,  on  sale  at  the  entrance. 

Agrellei. — An  Italian  brecciated  marble  of  recent 
introduction,  the  prevailing  colour  tone  being  a  brownish 
red,  with  white  crystalline  patches.  Quarried  in  Calabria. 
Sound,  and  of  rich  appearance  (see  Plate  X.). 


188       MARBLE   AND   MARBLE   WORKING. 

Alabaster. — Sulphate  of  gypsum.  Used  for  similar 
purposes  to  marble,  and  generally  supplied  through  marble 
masons.  The  British  (Staffordshire  and  Derbyshire) 
varieties  are  in  most  extensive  use.  Cream  ground, 
with  reddish  brown  veinings  and  markings.  Soft, 
and  presenting  a  waxy  appearance  when  polished. 
Prominent  instances  of  its  use  are  wall-lining  to 
grand  staircase,  Holborn  Restaurant,  W.C.  ;  interior 
of  British  Linen  Bank,  Threadneedle  Street,  E.C.  ; 
the  Guards'  Chapel,  S.W.,  etc.  Used  for  exteriors  : 
Columns  and  pediment  to  entrances  at  Broad  Street 
Place,  E.C. 

Alomite. — Also  known  as  Princess  Blue  (from  the 
interest  taken  by  H.R.H.  the  Princess  of  Wales  in  the 
introduction  of  the  material  into  Great  Britain).  A 
Canadian  sodalite,  deep  blue  in  colour,  with  small  red 
specks.  Only  suitable  for  inlays  and  small  ornaments. 
Used  as  inlays  to  pilasters  in  Upper  Hall,  United 
Kingdom  Provident  Institution,  Strand,  W.C.,  etc.  This 
material  appears  much  darker  in  hue  under  artificial  light 
(see  Plate  VII. ). 

Algerian  Onyx. — See  Onyx. 

Arizona  Onyx. — See  Onyx. 

Ami  Alto. — An  Italian  variegated  marble,  having  a 
white  ground  and  veinings  ranging  from  light  green  to 
deep  purple,  the  markings  in  the  latter  case  being  at  times 
very  heavy.  Also  known  as  Vert  Bella  and  Ami  Vein. 
Opens  up  well  for  panels.  Sound.  First  used  at 
Debenham's,  Wigmore  Street,  W.C.,  in  1907,  and  has 
rapidly  come  into  favour.  Used  for  wall-panelling  at 
the  entrance  to  Dewar's  offices,  Hay  market,  S.W.  (see 
Fig.  65). 


MARBLES  IN   ORDINARY  USE. 


189 


FIG.  65. 


A  STUDY  IN  WHITE  AND  GREEN:  ABNI  ALTO,  CAMPAN  VEST,  AND  TINOS. 


190       MARBLE   AND   MARBLE   WORKING. 

Ashburton. — One  of  the  best-known  varieties  of 
British  (Devonshire)  marbles.  Fossiliferous.  Dark  grey, 
merging  on  black,  with  bright  red  and  white  crystalline 
veins.  Sound,  and  obtainable  in  large  sizes.  Used  for 
skirtings,  etc.,  at  Lloyd's  Registry,  Fenchurch  Street, 
E.G.,  etc.  For  exterior  work,  the  restaurant  entrance  at 
Victoria  (S.E.  &  C.)  Railway  Station  can  be  quoted. 

Bardilla  or  Bardiglio. — An  Italian  variegated 
marble,  having  a  light  blue  ground  with  fine  pencil 
veinings  of  deep  purple.  Quarried  at  Carrara,  Massa, 
and  Seravezza.  Hard,  close  texture,  very  brittle.  A 
variety  in  which  the  veinings  are  irregular,  presenting 
the  appearance  of  flowered  markings,  is  sometimes  called 
Bardiglio  Fiorito.  The  names  are  identical  at  the 
quarries.  Used  as  dado  capping,  architraves,  etc.,  in 
entrance  hall,  Hotel  Victoria,  S.W.,  dado  panelling  to 
marble  hall  lounge,  Grand  Hotel,  W.C.,  etc. 

Bay  Vein. — One  of  the  varieties  of  Devonshire 
(Plymouth)  marbles.  Medium- toned  red,  with  grey 
patches  and  white  crystalline  veins.  Not  in  extensive  use. 

Belgian  Granit. — A  Belgian  carboniferous  limestone 
of  dark  grey  colour,  having  small  white  fossils  thickly 
distributed  through  the  formation.  Quarried  extensively 
in  the  Province  of  Hainaut  and  the  Hoyoux  and  Ourthe 
valleys  (Liege).  Sound,  obtainable  in  large  sizes,  and 
takes  a  medium  polish.  Principally  supplied  to  Great 
Britain  for  low-price  washstand  tops,  sanitary  work,  etc., 
also  as  a  thin  backing  for  more  expensive  marbles.  Used 
for  building  purposes  in  ground  floor  of  29,  Minories,  E.G., 
London  and  County  Bank,  Camberwell  Green,  S.E.,  etc. 

Birdseye. — A  British  fossiliferous  marble.  Dark 
grey  to  brown  ground,  with  light  grey  crinoidal  fragments. 


MARBLES  IN  ORDINARY  USE. 


191 


Quarried  at  Wirksworth  (Derbyshire).  Sound,  and 
obtainable  in  large  blocks.  Used  for  skirtings  and  caps 
and  bases  of  large  columns  in  entrance  hall  of  new 
Sessions  House,  E.G.,  etc. 

Black  Marble  is  obtained  from  Belgium,  France, 
England,  and  Ireland.  Derbyshire  Black  is  very  fine  in 
grain,  and  takes  a  good  polish.  Irish  (Galway)  black  is 

FIG.  66. 


A  MARBLE  DADO  :   STAIRCASE  AT  HOTEL  RUSSELL. 

Pierced  Panels  of  Siena  Marble,  with  Belgian  Black  Backing.      The  Handrail 
and  Plinth  are  of  Rose  du  Var. 

of  close  texture,  and  contains  small  white  shells.  The 
Belgian  variety  is  of  good  quality,  and,  as  it  can  be 
produced  at  low  cost,  is  in  most  extensive  use.  The 
principal  use  of  black  marble  is  for  floor  tiles,  borders, 
etc.,  and  as  a  backing  to  perforated  work  when  fixed  on 
walls,  etc.  (see  Fig.  66).  The  material  for  these  purposes 
is  generally  imported  ready  for  laying.  For  decorative 


192       MAEBLE   AND   MAEBLE   WOEKING. 

purposes,  the  dado  styles  to  grand  staircase  of  the  Holborn 
Eestaurant,  W.C.,  may  be  cited. 

Blanc  P. — One  of  the  varieties  of  white  Italian 
marble.  Quarried  at  Carrara  and  Massa.  Blanc  P. 
resembles  Statuary  to  some  extent,  being  free  from 
veining  and  prominent  markings.  It  is  softer  than 
ordinary  Sicilian,  but  harder  than  Statuary,  for  which 
it  is  occasionally  substituted  when  lowness  of  cost  is  a 
consideration.  Principally  used  for  ecclesiastical  work 
and  for  memorial  tablets  for  interiors. 

Bleu  Beige. — A  Belgian  marble,  having  a  deep 
black  ground,  with  white  crystalline  veins  running  with 
the  bed.  Sometimes  known  as  Grand  Antique  Beige. 
Sound,  and  obtainable  in  large  blocks.  Slabs  obtained 
from  selected  blocks  cut  "with  the  bed"  show  a  fine 
"  figure."  Used  extensively  for  skirtings  at  the  Holborn 
Eestaurant,  W.C.,  the  National  Gallery,  etc.,  and  for 
pilasters,  etc.,  at  Winchester  House,  Old  Broad  Street, 
E.G.,  the  latter  being  a  particularly  fine  instance. 

Blue  Turquin. — See  Dove. 

Boisjourdain. — A  French  fossiliferous  marble,  dark 
grey  in  tone,  having  white  crystalline  veins  with  a  red 
tinge,  and  small  red  markings.  Fairly  sound.  Inexpensive. 
Quarried  near  Laval,  Brittany.  Principally  used  as 
skirtings  and  dadoes,  etc.,  in  restaurants,  including  several 
of  Lyons's  establishments. 

Brazilian  Onyx. — See  Onyx. 

Breccia  Africano. — An  Italian  brecciated  marble  of 
similar  appearance  to  Breche  Violette,  but  rather  lighter 
in  tone.  Quarried  at  Pietrasanta.  Used  in  several  of 
Lyons's  restaurants. 

Breche  de  Dourlais. — See  Waulsort. 


MAKBLES   IN   ORDINARY   USE.  193 

Breccia  de  Seravezza. — See  Breche  Violette. 
Breche  Portor. — See  Portor. 
Breche  Rose. — See  Norwegian  Marbles. 
Breche  Sanguine,  or  Breccia  Sanguina. — An 

Algerian  breccia  ted  marble,  having  a  rich,  deep  red  ground, 
with  occasional  patches  of  lighter  shade.  Quarried  in  the 
Montagne  Gris,  near  Oran.  This  is  the  best-known  of 
the  Numidian  marbles  (the  Marmor  Numidicum  of 
ancient  Rome).  Sound,  and  of  handsome  appearance. 
The  columns  in  board  room  at  Lloyd's  Registry, 
Fenchurch  Street,  E.G.,  and  skirtings,  etc.,  at  new 
Sessions  House,  E.G.,  are  instances  of  its  use. 

Breche  Souris. — A  French  variegated  marble, 
having  some  resemblance  to  Ashburton,  but  without  the 
distinctive  fossil  markings  of  the  latter.  Quarried  near 
Laval  (Brittany).  Fairly  sound.  Inexpensive.  Used 
for  skirtings  and  dado  string  in  several  of  Lyons's 
restaurants,  etc.  The  term  "  Breche  "  is,  in  this  instance, 
a  misnomer,  the  marble  being  of  the  variegated  class. 

Breche  Violette. — An  Italian  brecciated  marble, 
having  a  white  or  yellow  ground,  with  purple,  red,  brown, 
and  green  markings.  Principally  quarried  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Seravezza,  and  sometimes  known  as 
Breccia  de  Seravezza.  This  marble  varies  to  a  large 
extent,  both  in  the  colour  tone  and  the  size  of  the 
fragments  embedded  in  the  magma.  Sound  blocks  can  be 
obtained  to  any  practicable  size,  but  care  must  be  taken 
in  selecting  the  material  where  the  colour  tone  is  required 
to  be  kept  within  a  reasonable  degree  of  variation. 
Breche  Violette  has  been  used  for  exterior  work  as 
columns  to  entrance  of  Hamilton  House,  Thames  Embank- 
ment, E.G.,  also  for  columns  and  facings  to  pilasters  at 

o 


194       MARBLE  AND  MARBLE  WORKING. 


22,  Oxford  Street,  W.  It  is  not  suited  for  use  in  exposed 
positions.  The  colours  are  liable  to  fade,  and  effloresence 
may  be  expected  along  the  lines  of  the  cementing  medium 
of  the  marble.  For  interiors,  the  balcony  round  first 
floor,  etc.,  at  the  Hotel  Russell,  W.C.,  and  columns  in 
main  entrance  of  the  War  Office,  Westminster,  S.W.,  may 

FIG.  67. 


A  MARBLE  BALCONY:  BRECHE  VIOLETTE  IN  PROFUSION. 

be  referred  to,  also  the  panels  in  the  new  buffet  at 
Victoria  (S.E.  &  C.)  Railway  Station,  S.W.  (see  Plate  III.). 
Calacata.— A  variety  of  white  Italian  marble  having 
broad  veinings  of  a  slaty  grey  colour.  Quarried  at 
Carrara.  Sound,  and  opens  out  well  for  panels.  The 
wall  lining  to  grand  staircase  of  Hotel  Cecil,  W.C.,  and 
panelling  at  entrance  to  Egypt  House,  Old  Broad  Street, 
E.G.,  are  good  instances  of  its  use. 


MARBLES   IN   ORDINARY   USE.  195 

Calderano. — An  Italian  brecciated  marble,  the  pre- 
vailing colour  tone  being  a  creamy  pink,  with  grey  and 
red  cementing  medium.  Quarried  in  Calabria,  Southern 
Italy.  Sound,  and  taking  a  high  polish.  Of  recent 
introduction,  and  not  yet  in  extensive  use. 

Californian  Onyx.— See  Onyx. 

Campan. — A  distinctive  name  given  to  the  French 
variegated  marbles  quarried  in  the  Campan  district,  Hautes 
Pyrenees.  These  marbles  may  be  identified  by  their 
peculiar  mottled  markings.  The  Campan  marbles  are 
generally  sound,  and  take  a  good  polish.  The  varieties  in 
general  use  are  :  — 

Campan  Vert. — A  light  green  marble,  with  white 
markings,  occasionally  tending  to  flesh  colour,  and  white 
crystalline  veins.  Used  for  exterior  work  in  pilasters  to 
Gainsborough  House,  Hanover  Square,  W.  For  interiors, 
the  columns,  architraves,  etc.,  at  entrance  hall  of  the 
Hotel  Russell,  W.C.,  and  panel  surrounds  at  Messrs. 
De war's  offices,  Haymarket,  S.AV.,  may  be  cited.  A 
slightly  inferior  quality  marble  of  similar  appearance, 
containing  rust-coloured  markings,  is  sold  under  the 
name  of  Vert  Vert. 

Campan  Melange. — A  marble  of  similar  colour 
and  marking  to  Campan  Vert,  but  with  broad  chocolate 
bands  traversing  the  formation.  Used  in  the  great 
chimney-piece  in  Hotel  Russell  entrance  hall,  columns  in 
coffee-room,  Hotel  Great  Central,  etc. 

Campan  Rose. — A  marble  of  similar  character  to 
the  above,  the  colour  tone  being  a  reddish  brown,  with 
markings  of  lighter  shade.  Used  for  pilasters  in  grand 
salle  a  manger  at  Hotel  Metropole,  etc. 

NOTE. — Difficulty  is  sometimes  experienced  in  obtain- 

o  2 


196       MARBLE   AND   MARBLE   WORKING. 

ing  blocks  from  the  Campan  district  during  the  winter 
months,  the  quarries  being  at  a  high  altitude,  and  the 
snowfalls  generally  heavy. 

Cippolino. — A  distinctive  name  given  to  laminated 
marbles  having  a  talcous  stratification.  The  varieties  in 
general  use  are  known  as  Swiss  and  Greek  Cippolino 
respectively. 

Swiss  Cippolino  is  quarried  at  Saillon,  near  Saxon, 
in  the  Canton  of  Valais.  It  has  a  pale  green  ground,  with 
straight  thin  veins  running  through  the  formation.  The 
ground  colour  varies,  and  the  veinings  are  at  times  very 
heavy.  Owing  to  the  straightness  of  the  veins,  the 
marble  when  sawn  with  the  bed  shows  a  fine  figure.  The 
varied  effect  produced  by  its  use  when  sawn  with  and 
across  the  bed  is  seen  to  advantage  in  the  door  jambs  in 
the  interior  of  22,  Fenchurch  Street,  where  this  marble 
has  been  used  "  both  ways."  Instances  of  its  use  for 
columnar  work  are  Electra  House,  Finsbury  Pavement, 
E.C.  (exterior),  and  the  United  Kingdom  Provident 
Institution,  Strand,  W.C.  (interior).  A  good  illustration 
of  the  use  of  this  marble  for  panelling  is  the  Public  Hall, 
Shoreditch  Municipal  Buildings,  E. 

Greek  Cippolino  is  an  instance  of  an  ancient 
marble  rediscovered.  The  quarries  are  situated  on  the 
Island  of  Euboea,  in  the  Grecian  Archipelago.  The 
marble  is  very  sound,  and  obtainable  to  any  reasonable 
dimensions.  The  colour  tone  is  light  green,  with  broad 
markings  of  a  deeper  shade,  the  impression  conveyed  by 
its  use  being  a  combination  of  richness  and  strength. 
This  marble  is  suited  for  use  in  exposed  positions,  and 
has  been  employed  for  exterior  work  in  Messrs.  D.  H. 
Evans's  and  Waring's  premises  in  Oxford  Street,  W.,  etc. 


MARBLES   IN   ORDINARY  USE.  197 

For  interiors,  the  new  Sessions  House,  E.G.,  and  the 
United  Kingdom  Provident  Institution,  W.C.,  are  good 
instances  of  its  use,  both  for  columnar  and  flat  treatment 
and  for  curved  surfaces.  Both  Greek  and  Swiss  Cippolino 
are  effectively  used  for  constructional  and  decorative 
purposes  combined  at  the  Roman  Catholic  Cathedral, 
Westminster,  S.W.  (see  Plate  II.). 

Comblanchien. — A  French  unicoloured  marble, 
quarried  near  Boulogne-sur-Mer.  It  has  a  creamy  tone, 
is  rather  soft  when  fresh  from  the  quarry,  but  hardens 
rapidly  on  exposure  to  the  atmosphere,  and  will  take  a 
good  polish.  Used  for  the  staircase,  etc.,  at  Frascati's 
Restaurant,  Oxford  Street,  W.,  etc. 

Connemara. — See  Irish  Green. 

Corallo. — A  Portuguese  fossiliferous  marble,  light  red 
in  colour,  without  prominent  markings.  Quarried  at 
Pedro  Pinheiro,  near  Lisbon.  Fairly  sound,  but  liable 
to  exfoliation  if  used  where  ventilation  is  deficient.  Used 
as  wall  panelling  (banded  with  Vedrasse)  in  dining-room 
of  new  Sessions  House,  E.C.,  etc. 

Cork  Red. — A  variegated  marble  quarried  in  the 
south  of  Ireland.  The  colour  tone  varies  from  light  red, 
with  white  mottled  markings,  to  brown,  with  small  red  and 
white  spots  and  fine  red  and  brown  veins.  Also  known 
as  Victoria  Red.  Largely  used  for  ecclesiastical  work. 
The  columns  supporting  the  pulpit  at  St.  Paul's  Cathedral, 
and  wall  linings  to  staircases  at  the  London  Stock 
Exchange  (1904  extension),  are  good  instances  of  its  use. 

Dark  Hopton.—  See  Hopton-Wood. 

Derby  Fossil. — A  fossiliferous  marble,  having  a 
dark  grey  ground  interspersed  with  crinoids.  Quarried 
at  Wirksworth.  Derbyshire.  Sound.  LTsed  in  small 


198       MARBLE   AND   MARBLE   WORKING. 

panels  in  main  corridor  of  Imperial  Institute,  Kensington, 
S.W.,  columns  in  chancel  of  Roman  Catholic  Church, 
Spanish  Place,  W.,  etc. 

Dove. — A  well-known  Italian  marble,  soft  grey  in 
tone,  with  occasional  light  patches.  Quarried  at  Carrara, 
Massa,  and  Seravezza.  Sometimes  known  as  Bleu  Turquin. 
Principally  used  for  flooring  purposes  as  an  alternative  to 
black  marble,  also  for  electrical  work  (switchboards,  etc.). 
Used  for  decorative  purposes  to  only  a  small  extent. 

Echaillon.  — A  French  unicol cured  marble,  light  grey 
in  tone.  Quarried  in  Brittany,  principally  for  building 
purposes.  Used  extensively  for  wall  linings,  floors,  etc., 
at  the  Ritz  Hotel,  Piccadilly,  W. 

Emperor's  Red. — A  Portuguese  fossiliferous  marble 
of  similar  appearance  to  Corallo,  but  of  slightly  deeper 
shade.  Quarried  near  Lisbon.  The  buffet  fittings  of  the 
Norfolk  Hotel,  London  Street,  Paddington,  W.,  may  be 
quoted  as  an  instance  of  its  use. 

Fleur  de  Pecher. — An  Italian  brecciated  marble, 
having  a  white  ground.  Similar  in  character  to  Breche 
Violette,  but  with  peach-coloured  markings  predominating. 
Difficult  to  obtain  in  large  sizes.  The  newels  to  grand 
staircase  at  the  Hotel  Victoria,  S.W.,  may  be  quoted  as  an 
instance  of  its  use. 

Frosterley. — A  dark  grey  fossiliferous  marble  of 
handsome  appearance  quarried  at  Harehope,  Co.  Durham. 
Very  hard,  taking  a  high  polish.  Principally  used  for 
ecclesiastical  work  (see  Figs.  27  and  43,  also  Plate  IX.). 

Genoa  Green. — An  Italian  variegated  marble,  having 
a  dark  green  ground,  nearly  black,  with  a  network  of  fine 
veins  of  lighter  shade  of  green,  and  white  crystalline 
markings.  Quarried  at  Pietralavezzara,  near  Genoa, 


PLATE  XI. 


r 


OIALLO     A.NT1CO     (X.    AFRICA). 
ONE    OF   TH~R    A.NCITCNT- NOUIDIAN    MARHI.WS. 


[To  face  p.  199. 


MARBLES   IN   ORDINARY   USE.  199 

This  marble  has  been  in  extensive  use  for  many  years, 
but  is  being  superseded  by  Greek  Tinos,  the  marking  of 
which  is  somewhat  similar,  while  its  production  is  more 
economical.  The  skirtings  and  architraves  in  the 
National  Gallery,  dado  of  oak  saloon,  Hotel  Metropole, 
etc.,  are  instances  of  its  use. 

Giallo  Antico. — A  Tunisian  variegated  marble  of 
great  beauty,  having  a  rich  yellow  ground  with  a  rose- 
pink  tint  and  occasional  deep  red  markings.  Quarried  at 
Chemtou,  in  the  Medjera  Valley.  This  marble  was  known 
to  the  ancient  Romans  and  used  by  them  to  a  large  extent. 
It  is  sound  and  easily  worked,  and  takes  a  brilliant  polish. 
Sometimes  known  as  Jaune  Antique.  The  linings  to 
dwarf  walls  at  entrance  stairs  of  the  National  Gallery, 
and  the  pedestal  of  Endymiou  asleep,  in  Third  Graeco- 
Roman  Room  at  the  British  Museum,  are  instances  of 
its  use  (see  Plate  XL). 

Grand  Antique  Beige. — See  Bleu  Beige. 

Grand  Antique  Pyrenees. — A  French  brecciated 
marble  of  striking  appearance,  made  up  of  angular  frag- 
ments of  black  and  white,  showing  sharp  contrasts. 
Sound,  and  when  used  in  masses  has  an  impressive  effect. 
The  dado,  etc.,  at  grill-room  of  the  Holborn  Restaurant, 
W.C.,  and  pilasters  at  Salisbury  House  (Circus  Place 
entrance),  E.G.,  are  instances  of  its  use. 

Griotte  de  Caunes. — A  French  variegated  marble, 
having  a  dark  red,  merging  on  brown,  ground,  with 
mottled  markings  of  lighter  shade  and  white  crystalline 
veins.  Quarried  generally  in  Southern  France  (Var, 
Pyrenees  Orientales,  etc.).  Principally  used  for  small 
columns  and  reliefs  to  black  marble  clock  cases.  Not 
extensively  used  in  Great  Britain. 


200       MABBLE   AND   MARBLE   WORKING. 

Griotte  d' Italic. — A  marble  of  similar  appearance  to 
Griotte  de  Cannes,  but  containing  small  shell  markings 
of  crystallised  calcite,  and  having  an  altogether  richer 
appearance.  Sound.  Quarried  near  Carcassone,  Aude. 

FIG.  68. 


A  DECOBATIVE  INTERIOR  :  GRIOTTE  DE  SOST  AND  CAMPAN  VERT. 

Principally  used  for  high-class  chimney-pieces  and  small 
ornaments.  The  supply  of  good  quality  material  for 
other  than  small  work  is  somewhat  uncertain. 

Griotte  de  Sost. — A  French  variegated  marble, 
brownish-red  ground  and  white  crystalline  veins.  Fairly 
sound.  Quarried  generally  throughout  the  Pyrenean 


MARBLES   IN   ORDINARY    USE.  201 

district.  Used  for  pedestals  supporting  columns  in 
entrance  hall  of  Hotel  Russell,  W.C.  (see  Fig.  68),  and 
for  skirtings  on  upper  floors ;  also  for  dado  to  King's 
Hall,  Holborn  Restaurant,  W.C. 

Gris  Rouge. — A  fossiliferous  marble  having  a 
medium-toned  grey  ground,  with  red  and  white  markings. 
Quarried  in  the  Hainaut  province  of  Belgium.  Fairly 
sound,  and  inexpensive.  Principally  used  for  table- 
tops,  etc. 

Gris  St.  Michel. — A  French  variegated  marble, 
having  a  medium-toned  grey  ground,  with  pronounced 
markings  of  deeper  shade  and  thin  crystalline  veins. 
Sound,  and  takes  a  good  polish.  Obtainable  in  large 
sizes.  Inexpensive.  Used  as  skirtings  at  Bell  House, 
10  and  12,  Copthall  Avenue,  E.G.,  etc. 

Hopton-Wood. — One  of  the  best-known  of  British 
marbles.  The  marbles  are  graded  into  three  varieties, 
ranging  from  a  creamy  ground  to  a  medium-toned  grey, 
with  crinoid  fragments  of  lighter  shade.  Sound,  and 
obtainable  in  large  blocks.  Does  not  take  a  high  polish. 
This  marble  is  available  for  constructional  purposes,  both 
exterior  and  interior,  also  as  a  veneering  of  thin  slabs. 
The  L.C.C.  School  of  Arts  and  Crafts,  Southampton 
Row,  W.C.,  is  a  good  instance  of  the  former  use.  For 
the  latter,  the  ground-floor  corridors  of  the  new  Sessions 
House,  E.C.  (alternate  courses  of  Hop  ton  -Wood  and 
Vedrasse)  may  be  cited.  The  pedestal  of  the  Gordon 
Memorial,  Trafalgar  Square,  W.,  is  an  instance  of  its 
use  for  exterior  work  (see  p.  109). 

lona. — A  light  green  serpentinous  marble  of  hand- 
some appearance,  quarried  in  the  Western  Hebrides. 
The  quarries  have  only  been  systematically  worked  very 


202       MARBLE  AND   MAKBLE   WORKING. 

recently,  and  the  marble  is  not  yet  well  known.  The 
colouring  is  rather  more  delicate  than  Irish  Green,  which 
it  somewhat  resembles.  Stocks  are  being  accumulated 
in  anticipation  of  a  considerable  demand  as  the  marble 
becomes  known. 

Ipplepen. — A  medium-toned  red  marble,  with  grey 
patches  and  white  crystalline  veins.  Quarried  at 
Ipplepen,  near  Newton  Abbot,  Devonshire.  Fairly 
sound,  and  takes  a  good  polish.  Used  locally  for 
building  purposes,  also  for  ecclesiastical  work. 

Italian  Onyx. — See  Onyx. 

Irish  Green. — A  well-knoAvn  serpentinous  marble 
(ophicalcite),  quarried  in  County  Galway,  Ireland.  A 
large  proportion  of  the  output  is  exported  to  America, 
there  being  a  considerable  demand  for  this  product 
among  connoisseurs  in  decorative  art  in  the  United 
States.  The  Belgian  demand,  too,  is  considerable.  A 
particularly  good  instance  of  its  use  is  in  the  pedestals 
supporting  columns  in  the  board  room  at  Lloyd's  Registry. 
Material  of  similar  quality  to  this  is,  however,  difficult  to 
obtain.  Good  average  quality  material  is  used  in  the 
shop  front  of  Martin  Bros.,  25,  Cheapside,  E.G.,  and  the 
chimney-piece  in  Hamburg-Amerika  Line  offices,  Cockspur 
Street,  S.W.  Irish  Green  is  a  "  tough "  marble,  and 
suited  for  high-grade  marble  floors. 

Jaune  Antique. — See  Giallo  Antico. 

Jaime  de  Var. — A  French  medium-toned  yellow 
marble  without  prominent  markings.  Takes  a  good 
polish  and  is  fairly  sound.  Sometimes  used  as  a  sub- 
stitute for  pale  Siena. 

Jaune  Lamartine. — A  French  variegated  marble, 
having  a  rich  yellow  ground  with  a  network  of  fine  pencil 


MARBLES   IN   ORDINARY   USE.  203 

veinings  of  bright  red  colour.  Quarried  near  Molinges, 
Jura.  A  sound  marble  of  handsome  appearance, 
obtainable  in  large  blocks.  Used  for  staircase  balustrade 
at  Hotel  Cecil,  W.C.,  dado  on  ground  floor  of  Salisbury 
House,  E.G.,  etc. 

Jaune  St.  Beaume. — A  marble  of  similar  character 
and  markings  to  Jaune  Lamartine,  but  without  the 
evenness  of  tone  shown  by  the  former.  The  wall 
panelling  at  the  office  of  the  Life  Assurance  Company  of 
Australasia,  4,  Cheapside,  E.C.,  may  be  quoted  as  an 
instance  of  its  use. 

Joinville. — A  French  variegated  marble,  having  a 
fawn-coloured  ground,  with  slight  red  patches  and 
markings.  Quarried  in  the  Vallee  Heureuse,  near 
Boulogne-sur-Mer.  The  marble  can  be  secured  to  any 
practicable  size,  and  is  of  compact  texture.  Largely  used 
for  constructional  purposes  in  France.  The  same  neigh- 
bourhood produces  Limel,  a  unicoloured  brownish-grey 
marble,  and  Lunel  Fleuri,  a  variety  of  Lunel  having 
flowered  markings  of  slightly  deeper  tone.  All  of  these 
marbles  are  used  for  dadoes,  etc.,  in  several  of  Messrs. 
Lyons's  restaurants.  They  are  also  used  as  pedestals  to 
portrait  busts  in  the  Roman  Portrait  Gallery,  etc.,  at  the 
British  Museum.  The  marbles  of  the  Joinville  series  are 
sound  and  comparatively  inexpensive. 

Languedoc.  —  A  French  fossiliferous  marble,  bright 
red  in  colour,  and  with  white  and  grey-flowered  markings. 
Quarried  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Carcassone,  Aude. 
Rather  glaring  in  tone.  Used  for  pilasters  in  ladies'  grill- 
room, Holborn  Restaurant,  W.C.,  etc.  The  stall  boards 
of  several  of  Messrs.  Dunn's  establishments  in  London  are 
instances  of  the  exterior  (?)  use  of  this  marble, 


204       MARBLE  AND   MARBLE   WORKING. 

Leifset  Gloire. — See  Norwegian  Marbles. 

Levanto. — An  Italian  serpentinous  marble,  the  colour 
tone  ranging  from  purple  to  red,  with  dark  green  veins. 
Quarried  at  Levanto.  Rather  soft  in  working,  and  liable 
to  exfoliation  if  not  well  looked  after.  Used  in  Holborn 
Restaurant,  W.C.  (corridor  at  side  of  grill-room,  Venetian 

FIG.  69. 


AMERICAN  MARBLE  FOR  LONDON  USE  :  LISTAVENNA  AND  SWEDISH  GREEN,  ' 

room,  etc.),  also  the  side  chapels  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Cathedral,  Westminster,  S.W.,  etc. 

Light  Hopton.— See  Hopton-Wood. 

Listavenna. — An  American  variegated  marble, 
having  a  pure  white  ground,  with  light  green  veinings. 
Quarried  in  Vermont,  U.S.A.  First  introduced  into 
England  in  1900  for  the  interior  decoration  of  the  marble 


MARBLES   IN   ORDINARY   USE.  205 

hall  at  the  Criterion  Restaurant,  Used  with  effect  for 
wall  linings  at  Dewar's  offices,  Haymarket,  S.W.,  London 
and  County  Bank,  Lombard  Street,  E.G.,  etc. 

Lunel. — See  Joinville. 

Lunel  Fleuri. — See  Joinville. 

Mazzano. — An  Italian  unicoloured  marble,  having  a 
cream  ground,  containing  a  light  pinkish  tint  and  slight 
grey  markings  of  a  veinous  nature.  Quarried  at  Brescia. 
Sound,  and  obtainable  in  large  sizes.  The  marble  is 
supplied  in  two  varieties — Mazzano  Bianco  and  Mazzano 
Semiscura,  the  pink  tint  in  the  ground  of  the  latter 
variety  being  more  accentuated.  Has  been  used  for 
exterior  constructional  work  at  Thanet  House,  Fleet 
Street,  E.C.  For  interiors,  Thanet  House  and  the  new 
Public  Offices,  Westminster,  S.W.,  may  be  cited  as 
instances  of  the  use  of  both  varieties  (see  Plate  VIII.). 

Mexican  Onyx.  —  See  Onyx. 

Napoleon. — One  of  the  varieties  of  the  Joinville 
series  (which  see),  but  having  fine  veinings  of  light  red 
and  brown  on  a  ground  of  medium-toned  grey.  Used 
in  ground-floor  corridor  of  Holborn  Restaurant,  W.C.,  etc. 

Norwegian. — A  general  description  applied  to  the 
saccharoidal  marbles  quarried  on  the  Vel  Fjord,  near 
Dunderland.  There  are  several  varieties  of  these  marbles, 
their  general  features  being  a  very  coarse  crystallisation 
and  exceptionally  hard  texture,  making  the  material 
difficult  to  work.  These  are  the  only  crystalline  marbles 
of  varying  colours  entirely  free  from  veins.  The  colouring 
is  delicate,  and  is  mainly  a  combination  of  rose-pink  and 
deep  green.  The  varieties  in  ordinary  use  are  known 
as  Lei/set  Gloire  (white  ground,  with  pink  and  green 
markings  occurring  in  stratified  form) ;  Sunset  Rose 


206       MARBLE   AND   MARBLE   WORKING. 

(similar  to  the  last-named,  but  with  pink  colour  tone 
predominating) ;  Breche  Rose  (white  and  pink,  giving  a 
breeciated  appearance) ;  Norge  Glair  (pure  white).  Nor- 
wegian marble  is  used  for  the  exterior  facing  of  the 
Junior  Constitutional  Club,  Piccadilly,  W.,  and  weathers 
well.  Considerations  of  cost,  however,  render  its  extended 
use  for  building  purposes  improbable.  For  interiors,  the 
columns  and  pilasters  at  3,  London  Wall  Buildings,  E.G., 
and  Great  Central  Hotel,  W.C.,  and  wall  linings  to 
Medici  Room,  Hotel  Cecil,  W.C.,  are  instances  of  its  use. 

Nyvert. — See  Swedish  Green. 

Onyx  or  Travertine. — The  principal  varieties  of 
onyx  marble  in  use  in  Britain  are  :  Algerian  (Africa), 
light  green  ground,  almost  white,  with  fine  yellow  veins ; 
Arizona  or  Yava  (United  States  of  America),  sea  green 
ground,  with  brilliant  red  and  brown  markings;  Brazilian 
(South  America),  dark  green,  with  bright  red  veins ; 
Calif ornian  (United  States),  light  green,  with  white 
mottled  markings  and  yellow  veins ;  Italian,  straw- 
coloured  ;  Mexican  (North  America),  light  green,  with  red 
and  yellow  veins  ;  Wyoming  (United  States),  dark  brown, 
with  mottled  markings  of  lighter  shade.  A  bright  red 
variety  from  Algeria  is  also  obtainable.  Onyx  marble  is 
largely  used  for  clock  cases,  lamp  stands,  pedestals,  and 
small  ornaments.  Instances  of  its  use  for  decorative 
purposes  are :  Surrounds  to  mirrors,  Viaduct  Hotel, 
Holborn,  E.C.  (Brazilian);  counter  top  at  Black  Lion 
public-house,  Queen  Victoria  Street,  E.C.  (Mexican) ;  wall 
linings,  Wellington  Hotel,  Wellington  Street,  Strand, 
W.C.  (Italian);  the  Trocadero  Buffet  (Algerian) ;  pilasters 
and  dado,  National  Provincial  Bank,  Aberystwyth  (Yava), 
etc.  (see  Plate  V.). 


MAKBLES   IN   ORDINARY   USE.  207 

Pavonazzo. — An  Italian  variegated  marble  having  a 
creamy  yellow  ground  and  deep  purple  veinings.  Quarried 
at  Carrara.  The  veinings  are  caused  by  the  shrinkage 
on  cooling  of  the  masses  of  Carrara  marble,  the  cracks 
occurring  on  the  edges  of  the  marble  beds  being  after- 
wards filled  with  metallic  oxides.  It  is  therefore  liable 
to  fracture  along  the  line  of  the  veins,  and  requires 
to  be  cramped  where  necessary.  Pavonazzo  is  only 
found  in  "pockets,"  and  is  consequently  variable  both  in 
supply  and  quality.  For  instance,  the  heavily  marked 
marble  employed  in  the  entrance  of  Indemnity  House, 
Old  Broad  Street,  E.G.  (see  Fig.  70);  the  wall  linings  at 
the  Commercial  Assurance  Company's  offices,  Royal 
Exchange  Buildings,  E.G.,  and  the  wall  lining  in  corridor 
of  Basildon  House,  Moorgate  Street,  E.G.,  were  each  of 
them  "  best  quality  Pavonazzo "  at  the  time  the  work 
was  executed.  At  the  time  of  writing  this  marble  is 
very  scarce  and  of  comparatively  poor  quality. 

Pavonazzo  de  Numidie. — An  Algerian  brecciated 
marble  of  similar  appearance  to  Breche  Sanguine  (which 
see),  but  of  less  richness  of  tone. 

Pentelikon.  —  A  well  -  known  Greek  saccharoidal 
marble  of  good  weathering  quality.  Quarried  on  Mount 
Pentelicus,  near  Athens.  This  material  is  suited  for  most 
of  the  purposes  for  which  white  Italian  (Sicilian)  marble  is 
used,  and  is  also  available  for  building  purposes.  The 
marble  from  the  upper  layers  is  of  a  bluish-grey  colour, 
resembling  Dove  Marble  (which  see).  A  selected  variety 
of  the  white  marble  deposits  is  in  demand  for  statuary 
purposes.  Pentelikon  may  be  obtained  in  three  qualities- 
ordinary,  for  use  for  constructional  purposes  ;  selected,  for 
decorative  purposes ;  and  statuary,  for  carved  work  and 


208       MARBLE   AND   MARBLE   WORKING. 


FIG.  70. 


AN  ATTRACTIVE  TREATMENT:  PAVONAZZO  AND  VERDE  AKTICO. 


MAEBLES  IN  ORDINARY  USE.  209 

work  of  the  highest  class.  Large  stocks  are  maintained 
at  British  and  Continental  centres  as  well  as  at  the 
quarries,  so  that  supplies  are  ready  available.  The 
marble  erections  in  Oxford  Street  and  St.  James's  Street, 
Piccadilly,  W.,  are  all  of  them  of  Pentelikon  marble. 

Petitor.  —  A  general  name  given  to  the  marbles 
quarried  at  Petit  Tor,  near  Torquay.  There  are  three 
well-known  varieties — yellow,  pink,  and  grey.  All  the 
varieties  are  in  use  for  decorative  purposes,  but  many 
of  the  best  instances  are  in  private  mansions  and  not 
accessible.  A  good  illustration  of  Petitor  marble  is  the 
wall  lining  of  the  London  and  County  Bank,  New  Kent 
Road,  S.E.,  and  the  grill-room  of  the  Throgniorton 
Restaurant,  E.C.  It  has  also  been  used  at  the  Hearts 
of  Oak  offices,  Euston  Road,  N.W.,  and  for  balusters 
at  top  of  staircase  at  Lloyd's  Registry,  E.C. 

Petworth. — A  fossiliferous  marble,  blue-grey  in  tone, 
quarried  at  Petworth  and  at  East  Grins tead,  Sussex. 
Fairly  sound.  Principally  used  for  ecclesiastical  work. 

Piastraccia. — An  Italian  variegated  marble,  having 
a  white  statuary  ground,  with  broken  grey  veinings 
traversing  the  formation.  Quarried  at  Pietrasanta.  Sound, 
but  occasionally  difficult  to  obtain,  the  supplies  being 
variable.  The  wall  linings  at  the  National  Bank  of 
Scotland,  St.  Nicholas  Lane,  E.C.,  and  panels  in  corridor 
of  Cross  Keys  House,  56,  Moorgate  Street,  E.C.,  are 
instances  of  its  use. 

Plymouth. — A  distinctive  name  given  to  several 
varieties  of  fossiliferous  marble  quarried  near  Plymouth, 
Devonshire.  The  colour  tones  vary  from  grey  to  all 
shades  of  red,  and  the  marbles  deserve  to  be  much  better 
known  and  used.  The  varieties  in  ordinary  use  are 

P 


210       MARBLE  AND   MARBLE  WORKING. 

Prince  Hock  Grey,  a  fossiliferous  marble,  with  thin  red 
veins  and  white  crystalline  markings ;  Silver  Grey,  a 
delicate  shade  of  grey  marble,  of  lighter  appearance  than 
the  last-named ;  Plymouth  Dove,  a  soft- toned  grey 
marble,  with  small  yellow  markings ;  Devon  Sienna,  a 
sound  marble,  having  a  resemblance  to  Jaime  Antique, 
but  of  deeper  ground  tone;  Devon  Spar,  a  delicate-toned 
red,  merging  to  cream  colour,  with  a  pink  tinge ;  Rose 
Red,  a  coarse  crystalline  marble  of  rich  red  tone; 
Spangled  Red,  also  known  as  Bay  Vein,  a  dark  grey 
marble,  with  heavy  crystalline  veining  of  various  shades 
from  bright  red  through  pink  to  white ;  Devon  Black,  a 
black  marble  with  white  crystalline  veins  and  small  grey 
markings ;  another  variety  of  this  marble  has  heavy 
crystalline  veining  of  crimson  tone ;  Spangled  Pink, 
reddish  grey  ground,  with  masses  of  pink  crystalline 
markings  and  fine  pencil  veinings  of  brilliant  red ; 
Favositidce,  a  handsome  brown  marble,  highly  fossiliferous; 
and  Clouded  Yellow,  flesh-colour  ground,  with  light  yellow 
patches  and  a  fine  network  of  veins.  Rose  Red,  Devon 
Spar,  and  Devon  Sienna  are  only  obtainable  in  small 
blocks  ;  all  the  other  varieties  can  be  secured  up  to  any 
reasonable  size.  All  the  varieties  are  in  occasional  use, 
but  the  marble  resources  of  this  part  of  the  country  are 
very  much  neglected.  The  columns  at  the  Brompton 
Oratory,  South  Kensington,  give  some  idea  as  to  the 
availability  of  the  Plymouth  marble  deposits  (see  Plates 
VI.  and  XII.). 

Polyphant. — A  close-grained,  serpentinous  marble, 
quarried  in  Cornwall,  having  a  dark  blue-grey  ground, 
with  small  markings  of  lighter  shade  evenly  distributed. 
Fairly  sound  and  easily  worked.  Principally  used  for 


PLATE  XII. 


I 


CLODDED    YELLOW 


SPANGLED   RED,  o 
DEVONSHIRE     MARBLES. 


[To  face  p.  210. 


MARBLES  IN  ORDINARY  USE.  211 

ecclesiastical  work.  Owing  to  its  peculiar  properties  (the 
stone  is  not  affected  by  boiling  in  sulphuric  acid),  this 
material  is  in  considerable  demand  for  laboratory  purposes. 

Portor  or  Port  d'Oro. — A  general  name  given  to 
marbles  having  a  black  ground,  with  yellow  veins,  pre- 
senting a  brecciated  appearance.  The  varieties  in  use  are 
named  Black  and  Gold,  Breche  Portor,  etc.  The  principal 
quarries  are  at  Porto  Venere,  near  Spezia,  Italy.  This 
marble  is  also  quarried  at  several  places  in  Southern 
France.  The  columns  and  pilasters  at  the  London  Wall 
Buildings,  E.G.,  and  banded  treatment  at  the  Baltic, 
St.  Mary  Axe,  E.G.,  are  good  instances  of  its  use. 

Princess  Blue. — See  Alomite, 

Purbeck.  -  .V  fossiliferous  marble  quarried  near 
Swanage,  Dorset.  Blue-grey  in  tone,  with  calcite  filling 
to  a  shell  formation.  One  of  the  oldest  known  British 
marbles.  Principally  used  for  ecclesiastical  work. 

Red  Ogwell. — A  fossiliferous  marble  of  bright  red 
colour  and  large  calcite  fillings  to  fossil  remains.  Quarried 
near  Newton  Abbot,  Devonshire.  Fairly  sound,  but 
requires  careful  selection.  Used  for  pilasters  on  staircase 
at  Lloyd's  Registry,  E.G.,  etc. 

Rhondona. — An  Italian  brecciated  marble  of  hand- 
some appearance,  the  colour  of  the  fragments  composing 
it  varying  from  white  to  bright  green,  and  pink  to  deep 
purple.  Quarried  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Pietrasanta. 
Sometimes  known  as  Breche  Rhondone.  The  pilasters  on 
first-floor  level  of  grand  staircase,  Hotel  Victoria,  S.W., 
are  worked  from  this  marble. 

Ringborg  Green. — See  Swedish  Green. 

Rose'  Brocatelle  de  Centro. — A  selected  variety 
of  Verona  Red  (which  see),  having  bands  of  deeper  shade 

p  2 


212       MARBLE   AND   MARBLE   WORKING. 

than  the  ground  of  the  marble  traversing  the  formation. 
Sound,  and  obtainable  in  large  sizes,  but  subject  to  the 
same  disadvantages  as  Verona  Red.  The  King's  Hall, 
Holborn  Restaurant,  W.C.,  is  a  good  illustration  of  its  use. 
Rose  de  Numidie. — A  marble  of  similar  appearance 
to  Giallo  Antico  (which  see),  but  of  slightly  less  delicacy 
of  tone.  Quarried  in  the  Monfcagne  Grise  (Algiers).  Used 

FIG.  71. 


A  STAIECASE  LANDING  :   ROSE  DU  VAR  AND  SIENA. 

in  the  Chapel  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament,  Westminster 
Cathedral,  S.W. 

Rose  Eujugeraie. — See  Sarancolin  de  1'Ouest. 

Rose  du  Var. — A  French  (Pyrenean)  brecciated 
marble  of  bright  red  colour  with  yellow  patches,  giving  a 
rich  decorative  effect.  Sometimes  known  as  Rouge  Jaspe. 
While  the  appearance  of  this  marble  is  very  handsome, 
the  surface  requires  frequent  attention,  otherwise  exfolia- 


MARBLES  IN  ORDINARY  USE.  213 

tion  will  take  place.  In  cases  where  this  cannot  be 
provided  for,  it  is  advisable  for  another  marble  to  be 
substituted.  The  interior  decoration  of  the  Hotel  Russell, 
W.C.,  is  an  instance  of  its  use.  It  has  also  been  exten- 
sively used  in  Lyons's  restaurants. 

Rosso  Antico. — Considerable  confusion  has  prevailed 
respecting  this  marble  on  account  of  the  products  of 
modern  quarries  in  Southern  France  and  Italy  being  so 
named.  The  true  Rosso  Antico,  the  ^Egyptum  of  ancient 
Rome,  is  of  Grecian  origin.  Its  colour  is  deep  red,  with 
occasional  white  markings  and  white  crystalline  veins. 
The  most  extensive  deposits  are  at  Mani  (Laconia).  It  is 
also  quarried  at  Lageia  (Thessaly).  This  marble  is  seldom 
used  for  public  buildings,  its  high  price  making  it  pro- 
hibitive for  other  than  the  best  class  of  work.  The  frieze 
backing  of  the  reredos  at  St.  Paul's  Cathedral  is  executed 
in  this  marble. 

Rouge. — A  distinctive  name  given  to  red  marbles, 
but  specially  applied  to  the  red  fossiliferous  marbles  of 
Belgium.  These  are  sold  under  high-sounding  names- 
Rouge  Royal,  Rouge  Imperial,  Rouge  Byzantine,  Rouge 
Griotte,  etc.  ;  but  with  the  exception  of  Rouge  de  Ranee 
(which  see),  any  and  all  of  these  varieties  are  ordinarily 
known  as  "  Rouge,"  and  understood  to  be  Belgian  marble, 
available  for  purposes  of  utility,  sanitary  work,  table-tops, 
etc.,  rather  than  for  decorative  effect.  Rouge  marble  often 
contains  a  number  of  clay  veins,  which  are  raked  out  and 
filled  with  stopping.  An  ordinary  examination  will  not 
always  reveal  this,  and  the  defect  is  only  apparent  after 
the  marble  is  in  position.  Carefully  selected  material  can, 
however,  be  used  to  advantage,  as  may  be  seen  in  the 
dado  of  grand  staircase,  Holborn  Restaurant,  W.C., 


214       MARBLE   AND  MARBLE  WORKING. 

entrance  lounge,  Hotel  Metropole,  S.W.,  entrance  to 
Tooth's  Galleries,  Hayinarket,  etc.  An  instance  of  its 
weathering  on  exposure  can  be  found  in  the  small  columns 
at  entrance  of  the  Sheffield  Telegraph  building,  Fleet 
Street,  E.G. 

Rouge  Acajou. — A  French  variegated  marble  of 
medium-toned  red,  having  a  mottled  marking  of  lighter 
shade  throughout  the  formation.  Quarried  at  Cierp  (Haute 
Gironde).  Sound,  and  obtainable  in  large  blocks.  Used 
for  dado  and  panel  styles  in  several  of  Lyons's  restaurants. 

Rouge  Antique. — A  marble  having  some  resemblance 
to  Rosso  Antico  (which  see),  quarried  at  Cierp  and  near 
Villerembert  (Haute  Gironde).  Principally  used  for  clock 
cases  and  for  small  ornaments. 

Rouge  de  Ranee. — A  Belgian  fossiliferous  marble 
having  a  reddish-brown  ground  and  large  white  markings, 
presenting  a  handsome  though  rather  massive  effect. 
Quarried  at  Ranee  (Hainaut).  The  quarry  was  reopened 
in  1900  after  nearly  200  years  of  disuse,  one  of  the  first 
extractions  of  marble  being  material  for  120  monolith 
columns,  each  12  ft.  in  length,  for  Antwerp  Railway 
Station.  The  marble  is  very  sound,  and  should  be  avail- 
able for  exterior  work.  It  is  obtainable  to  any  reasonable 
dimensions.  The  writer  has  no  information  respecting  its 
use  as  yet  in  public  buildings  in  this  country.  It  has, 
however,  been  used  for  private  house  interiors,  and  has 
given  great  satisfaction. 

Rouge  Jaspe. — See  Rose  du  Var. 

St.  Anne's. — One  of  the  best-known  varieties  of 
Belgian  marbles.  Very  sound.  Fossiliferous,  with  dark 
grey  ground  and  light  grey  and  white  markings.  The 
principal  quarries  are  at  Gougnies,  near  Charleroi. 


MAKBLES  IN  ORDINARY  USE.  215 

St.  Beat. — A  French  saccharoidal  marble,  free  from 
pronounced  markings,  quarried  at  St.  Beat  (Haute  Gironde). 
The  crystallisation  is  somewhat  coarser  than  Italian 
Statuary.  A  selected  variety  of  this  marble  is  held  in 
high  repute  among  French  sculptors,  some  of  whom  prefer 
it  to  Italian  Statuary. 

St.  Just. — An  Austrian  unicoloured  marble  of  creamy 
tone,  quarried  near  Trieste.  Close  texture,  and  carves 
and  polishes  well.  Principally  used  for  ecclesiastical  work. 
The  carved  panels  in  the  frieze  at  St.  George's  Hall, 
Liverpool,  are  executed  in  this  material. 

St.  Katherine's. — A  variegated  Spanish  marble  of 
recent  introduction.  Reddish  brown  in  colour,  with  red 
and  fine  white  markings,  presenting  a  handsome  appear- 
ance. Rather  soft  in  working,  and  disposed  to  break 
away  on  the  edges.  Takes  a  fine  polish.  Not  yet  in 
extensive  use. 

St.  Sylvestre. — A  variegated  Portuguese  marble, 
having  a  flesh-coloured  ground,  the  surface  being  inter- 
laced with  red  and  pink  vein  ings  and  broad  white  crystal- 
line veins.  Sound,  and  obtainable  in  large  sizes.  Easily 
worked,  taking  a  good  polish.  The  dado  at  3,  London 
Wall  Buildings,  E.G.,  is  an  instance  of  its  use. 

Sarancolin  de  POuest. —  A  French  variegated 
marble,  having  a  yellow  ground,  with  pink  and  flesh- 
coloured  markings  and  occasional  white  veins.  Quarried 
at  Greez-en-Bauere  (Mayenne).  Fairly  sound,  and  takes  a 
good  polish.  Used  for  wall  linings  in  upper  courses  of 
entrance  to  Canadian  Pacific  Railway  Company's  offices, 
Cockspur  Street,  S.W.,  etc. 

Sarancolin  Pyrenees.  —  A  marble  of  somewhat 
similar  appearance  to  the  last-named,  but  of  greater 


216       MARBLE  AND   MAKBLE  WORKING. 

brilliance  of  colour.  Quarried  at  Ilhet,  near  Bagneres-de- 
Bigorre  (Hautes  Pyrenees).  Sound,  and  obtainable  in 
large  blocks.  Used  for  wall  lining  and  pilasters  in  dining- 
room  of  Hotel  Russell,  W.C. 

Sicilian. — The  term  generally  used  for  the  ordinary 
varieties  of  white  Italian  marble.  The  name  is  peculiar 
to  the  British  trade,  and  has  become  recognised  from 
custom.  The  material  is  generally  known,  and  needs  no 
description.  Varieties  containing  a  bluish  tinge  are  the 
hardest,  and  most  suitable  for  steps  and  landings.  The 
dead  white  varieties  are  generally  softer,  and  while  suited 
for  many  of  the  purposes  for  which  marble  is  used,  will 
not  stand  hard  wear.  Sicilian  marble  is  quarried  generally 
in  the  Apuan  Alps,  the  principal  centres  being  Carrara, 
Massa,  and  Seravezza,  the  marble  being  shipped  vid 
Leghorn.  Quarries  have  also  been  opened  in  the  Equi 
valley,  on  the  northern  slopes  of  the  range,  shipments 
being  made  vid  Spezia. 

Siena. — An  Italian  variegated  marble  having  a  yellow 
ground  with  deep  purple  veins.  Quarried  at  Siena  and 
Montarenti.  The  quality  of  the  marble  varies  to  a  con- 
siderable extent,  and  the  price  fluctuates  considerably. 
A  variety  without  distinctive  veinings,  the  ground  colour 
being  of  a  lighter  tint,  is  known  as  Pale  Siena.  Used 
in  chimney-piece  of  Canadian  Pacific  Railway  offices, 
Cockspur  Street,  S.W.,  also  as  surrounds  to  panels  at 
Salisbury  House,  E.C. 

Skyros. — A  descriptive  name  for  the  marbles  quarried 
in  the  Island  of  Skyros,  in  the  .ZEgean  Sea.  While  the 
ground  of  the  Skyros  marbles  is  generally  of  a  creamy  tint, 
the  markings  vary  considerably.  The  blocks  obtained  are 
graded  into  four  varieties,  known  as  Skyros  12,  14A,  14c, 


[To 


/>.  210. 


PLATE  XIII. 


SKYROS     No.    He     (GRECIAN     ARCHIPELAGO). 

[To  face  p.  217. 


MARBLES  IN  ORDINARY  USE.  217 

and  14E.  The  Skyros  marbles  are  mostly  sound,  and  the 
varieties  present  harmonious  contrasts  when  used  together. 
Skyros  12  is  crowded  with  what  may  be  described  as  a 
double  network  of  fine  veins,  the  colouring  being  pale 
yellow  and  violet.  Skyro*  14A  has  a  rich  orange-coloured 
marking  of  brecciated  appearance,  the  markings  blending 
with  the  ground  in  an  effective  manner.  Skyros  14c  is  a 
brecciated  marble  of  even  tone,  the  cementing  medium 
being  of  deep  reddish -brown  hue.  This  variety  is  less 
sound  than  the  others.  Skyros  14E  is  the  most  brilliant 
of  all.  The  colouring  matter  is  diffused,  and  has  tinted 
the  crystals  as  they  formed  during  the  metamorphic 
process  the  marble  has  undergone.  The  result  is  a  gorgeous 
mass  of  colouring  from  crimson  to  brown,  with  an  appear- 
ance of  translucency  unapproached  in  any  other  decorative 
medium.  Skyros  14 A  is  used  for  wall  lining  to  the 
Manchester  and  Liverpool  District  Banking  Company's 
offices,  75,  Cornhill,  E.G.  A  combination  of  Skyros  14c 
and  14E  can  be  seen  at  Lyons's  Cafe,  2,  Newgate  Street, 
E.C.,  and  Skyros  14A  (surrounds  to  frieze),  c  (wall  lining 
to  interior),  and  E  (lower  courses  of  lobby  panelling)  at  the 
Canadian  Pacific  Railway  Company's  offices,  Cockspur 
Street,  S.W.  (see  Plates  I.,  IV.,  and  XIII.). 

Spanish  Brocatelle. — A  shell  marble  of  brilliant 
appearance,  quarried  near  Tortosa  (Catalonia).  The  ground 
is  deep  red,  and  is  almost  covered  with  small  yellow,  grey, 
and  white  crystals.  Suitable  for  inlays  rather  than  for 
large  masses.  Sometimes  employed  for  small  panels  inset 
in  chimney-pieces  and  for  mountings  for  clock  cases. 

Spanish  White. — A  saccharoidal  marble  quarried  in 
the  Sierra  Felabres,  near  Albanchez  (Almeria).  The 
crystallisation  is  coarser  than  that  of  Italian  or  Greek 


218       MAEBLE  AND   MARBLE  WORKING. 

marbles,  and  the  material  is  rather  hard.  Takes  a  good 
polish  and  is  free  from  veins.  The  quarries  have  only 
been  worked  extensively  since  1905,  and  the  greater 
part  of  the  output  has  been  engaged  for  building  purposes 
in  leading  Spanish  cities,  so  that  little  of  the  material 
has  yet  reached  this  country. 

Statuary. — A  general  name  given  to  pure  white 
marble,  free  from  markings,  but  generally  understood  as 
meaning  the  best  quality  of  Italian  white  marble.  The 
principal  supplies  are  obtained  from  Carrara,  Massa,  and 
Seravezza,  the  Mont  Altissimo  variety  from  the  latter 
locality  being  the  more  highly  esteemed.  A  selected 
variety  of  Greek  Pentelikon  is  used  for  statuary  purposes, 
as  is  the  French  marble  known  as  St.  Beat.  Owing  to  the 
difficulties  attendant  on  selection,  best  statuary  always 
commands  a  high  price.  On  this  account  statuary  marble 
is  only  in  occasional  use  for  decorative  purposes.  A 
good  instance  of  such  use  is  the  entrance  vestibule  and 
staircase  at  Lyons's  Popular  Restaurant,  Piccadilly,  W. 

Statuary  (Second  or  Bastard).  —The  term  applied 
to  statuary  marble  containing  blemishes,  rendering  it 
unsuitable  for  finest  quality  carved  work.  Available  for 
decorative  interiors,  good-class  chimney-pieces,  ecclesias- 
tical work,  etc.  The  variation  in  quality  is  considerable, 
and  where  a  particular  effect  is  desired,  it  is  advisable  to 
secure  samples  showing  the  character  of  the  marble  to  be 
supplied. 

Statuary   Vein. — White    Italian    marble   having   a 
statuary    ground     and    fine    blue    veins    traversing    the 
formation.     Available  for  decorative  interiors,  but  not  in 
great  demand. 
Sunset  Rose. — See  Norwegian  Marbles. 


MARBLES  IN  ORDINARY  USE.         219 

Swedish  Green  (also  known  as  Nyvert  and 
Ringborg  Green). — A  variegated  dolomitic  marble 
quarried  at  Norrkbping  (Sweden),  Light  sage  green 
in  tone,  with  white  markings.  Very  close  texture. 
The  marble  may  be  graded  into  three  varieties — plain, 
mottled,  and  flowered.  The  plain  variety  has  the  white 
markings  distributed  in  even  lines,  showing  an  apparent 
stratification,  the  mottled  variety  has  white  mottled 
markings  evenly  distributed  throughout,  and  the 
flowered  variety  has  dark  green  finely  figured  bands 
traversing  the  formation.  Instances  of  its  use  are  (plain 
and  mottled  varieties)  pilasters  at  Shoreditch  Municipal 
Buildings,  wall  lining  at  entrance  of  the  Coliseum,  W.C., 
etc.  The  flowered  variety  is  used  as  surrounds  to  Calacata 
panels  in  the  entrance  to  Egypt  House,  New  Broad  Street, 
E.G.  The  banded  treatment  at  Messrs.  Dewar's  main 
office,  Haymarket,  S.W.  (see  Fig.  65),  is  executed  in 
Swedish  Green.  It  is  also  used  for  exterior  work  at 
the  new  Egyptian  Hall,  Piccadilly,  W. 

Tinos. — A  well-known  Greek  marble  quarried  on  the 
island  whence  it  takes  its  name  The  colour  tone  is  dark 
green,  thickly  covered  with  an  extremely  close  network 
of  veins  of  various  shades  of  the  same  colour.  Another 
variety  from  the  same  locality  has  a  deep  purple  ground, 
with  light  and  dark  green  veins  traversing  the  formation. 
Both  varieties  are  sound,  the  former  being  the  closer 
in  texture,  and  blocks  can  be  obtained  to  any  desired 
dimension.  The  fine-veined  variety  has  been  used  for 
exterior  work — large  columns  at  Messrs.  Debenham's, 
Wigmore  Street,  W.,  boxed  up  in  pilasters  at  No.  3, 
Cheapside,  E.G.,  also  for  shop  front,  etc.,  at  6-7,  Poultry, 
E.G.  Both  varieties  are  used  at  the  new  Sessions 


220     MARBLE  AND  MARBLE  WORKING. 

House,  E.G.,  the  columns  on  either  side  of  recesses 
in  ground-floor  corridor  having  a  purple  ground,  while 
the  pilasters  adjoining  are  of  the  fine-veined  material. 

Vedrasse. — A  Portuguese  fossiliferous  marble,  having 
a  creamy  ground  with  a  pink  tint.  Quarried  at  Pedro 
Furando,  near  Lisbon.  Sound  and  easily  worked,  and 
takes  a  good  polish.  Inexpensive.  Another  variety  of 
this  marble  has  a  ground  of  rather  deeper  tone,  with  small 
brown  veinous  markings  evenly  distributed  through  the 
formation.  Both  varieties  are  used  in  the  ground-floor 
corridors  of  the  new  Sessions  House,  E.G.  (banded  with 
Hopton-Wood),  and  dining-room  at  end  of  corridor 
(banded  with  Corallo). 

Vein. — An  Italian  white  marble  with  clear  ground  and 
prominent  vein  markings.  Largely  used  for  decorative 
purposes  on  the  Continent,  but  not  in  great  demand  in 
this  country.  The  balcony  of  the  Grand  Salon,  Holborn 
Restaurant,  W.G.,  is  a  good  instance  of  the  decorative 
effect  produced  by  its  use. 

Verde  Antico. — A  Greek  brecciated  serpentine  of 
great  beauty,  made  up  of  angular  fragments  of  light  and 
dark  green  serpentines  and  pure  white  marble.  The 
colouring  matter  has  penetrated  the  white  fragments 
during  the  process  of  cooling  down,  giving  the  marble  its 
distinctive  markings.  The  material  is  obtained  from  the 
quarries  worked  by  the  ancient  Romans  near  Larissa 
(Thessaly).  The  ancient  workings  were  rediscovered  by 
Mr.  W.  Brindley,  E.G.S.,  in  1886,  and  the  marble  has 
been  .largely  used  of  recent  years.  It  is  one  of  the 
soundest  of  breccias,  and  is  obtainable  in  large-sized 
blocks.  The  material  is  ordinarily  supplied  as  light, 
medium,  or  dark  Verde  Antico,  the  medium-toned  variety 


MARBLES  IN  ORDINARY  USE.  221 

being  in  most  general  use.  This  marble  is  used  for 
exterior  work,  banded  with  Portland  stone,  at  the  Gaiety 
Theatre,  Strand,  W.C.  Recent  instances  of  its  use  for 
interiors  are  columns  in  Roman  Catholic  Cathedral,  West- 
minster, S.W.,  and  new  Sessions  House,  E.C.,  pilasters, 
etc.,  at  JEolian  Hall,  New  Bond  Street,  W.,  etc.  The  light 
variety  is  used  in  wall  lining  at  entrance  of  Friars  House, 
New  Broad  Street,  E.C.,  also  for  window  fittings  in  the 
"  J.P."  restaurants  in  various  parts  of  London. 

Verde  de  Prato. — An  Italian  serpentinous  marble 
of  dark  green  tone,  with  small  mottled  markings  of  lighter 
shade.  Quarried  at  Prato  (Tuscany).  Soft,  and  only 
obtainable  in  small  blocks.  Principally  used  for  bust 
pedestals,  etc.  This  material  must  be  employed  with 
discretion,  as  it  is  liable  to  deterioration  if  exposed  to 
changes  of  temperature.  The  skirtings  at  the  Savoy 
Hotel  and  lining  at  back  of  the  reredos  at  St.  Paul's 
Cathedral  are  instances  of  its  use  for  decorative 
purposes. 

Vert  Vert. — See  Campan  Vert. 

Verona  Red.  —  An  Italian  fossiliferous  marble 
quarried  near  Verona.  Brick  red  in  colour,  with  small 
markings  of  lighter  tone.  Requires  careful  attention, 
being  liable  to  exfoliation.  A  selected  variety  of  this 
marble,  with  bands  of  darker  hue  running  through  the 
formation,  is  known  as  Rose  Brocatelle  de  Centro.  The 
King's  Hall,  Holborn  Restaurant,  W.C.,  and  balustrading 
at  New  York  Mutual  Life  offices,  Cornhill,  E.C.,  are 
instances  of  the  use  of  both  varieties. 

Verona  Yellow.  —  A  Verona  marble  of  similar 
character  and  formation  to  the  last-named,  but  with 
a  yellow  tone.  The  chimney-piece  in  the  entrance 


222       MARBLE   AND   MAEBLE  WORKING. 

lounge,  Hotel  Victoria,  S.W.,  and  wall  panelling  in  grand 
staircase  of  the  new  Sessions  House,  E.G.,  are  instances 
of  its  use.  The  columns  supporting  the  baldachino  at 
Westminster  Cathedral,  S.W.,  are  executed  in  this  marble. 

Vert  des  Alpes.— An  Italian  serpentiuous  marble 
of  similar  appearance  to  Genoa  Green  (which  see),  but 
slightly  deeper  in  tone.  Quarried  at  various  localities  in 
the  Cottian  Alps.  Fairly  sound,  and  free  working.  The 
skirtings  to  entrance  hall,  etc.,  of  Hotel  Russell  (ground 
floor)  is  an  instance  of  its  use. 

Vert  d'Eau  (also  known  as  Vert  d'Estoure). — 
A  French  variegated  marble  of  similar  appearance  and 
colour  to  Campan  Yert,  but  rather  closer  in  texture. 
Quarried  at  Estoure  (Ariege).  Obtainable  in  large  sizes. 
Used  at  the  Alliance  Assurance  Company's  offices, 
Bartholomew's  Close,  E.C.  ;  surrounds  to  Piastraccia  panels 
at  Cross  Keys  House,  56,  Moorgate  Street,  E.C.,  etc. 

Victoria  Red.— See  Cork  Red. 

Waulsort. — A  Belgian  brecciated  marble,  made  up 
of  angular  fragments  of  black,  various  shades  of  brown, 
red,  grey,  and  white  marbles  cemented  together.  The 
prevailing  colour  tone  is  dark  brown.  Quarried  at 
Hastieres,  near  Dinant.  Also  known  as  Breche  de 
Dourlais.  Very  sound  for  a  brecciated  marble.  Used 
for  a  dado  at  crush  room  adjoining  Roman  atrium,  Hotel 
Cecil,  W.C.  ;  panel  surrounds  in  corridor  of  Winchester 
House,  E.C.,  etc. 

Wyoming  Onyx. — See  Onyx. 

Yava  Onyx. — See  Onyx. 


INDEX. 


ADVANTAGES  of  British  Work- 
ing, The,  169 

Alabaster,  17,  74 

Algerian  Marbles,  78 

Algerian  Onyx,  78 

Alomite,  114 

Alphabetical  List  of  Marbles  in 
Ordinary  Use,  with  Instances  of 
their  Application,  187-222 

AmericanMachinery,Inapplicability 
of,  159 

American  Marble  for  British  Use,98 

American  Marble  Working,  152 

American  Tariff,  Result  of  the, 
105,  153 

Ancient  Marble  Deposits,  20,  76, 
78,  90 

Ancient  Methods  of  Extraction,  22 

Architects,  Responsibility  of,  3,  184 

Arizona  Onyx,  98 

Australian  Marbles,  116 

Austrian  Marbles,  95 

Automatic  Sculpture  Machine,  The, 
147 

BACKED  Slabs,  the  Use  of,  148 
Belgian  Marble  Working,  122 
Belgian  Marbles,  79 
Black,  Belgian,  79,  84 


Brazilian  Onyx,  101 
Brecciated  Marbles,  8,  13 
British  Colonies,  Marble  from,  113 
British     Marble     Work,     Notable 

Instances  of,  167,  168 
British  Marbles,  103,  111 
British   Working,    Advantages   of, 

169 
Building  in  Marble  : 

Ancient,  19 

Modern,  51 


CALABRIAN  Marbles,  74 

Canadian  Marbles,  114 
Carborundum,  139 
Carborundum  Process,  The,  155 
Carrara  Marbles,  20,  70 
Changes  of  Twenty  Years,  The,  1 
Cheap  Statuary,  74 
Cheap  Substitutes  for  Marble,  181 
Classification  of  Marbles,  A,  9 
Colonial  Trade,   Possibilities  of   a, 

114,  117 
Coloured  Marble,  The  First  Use  of, 

65 

Competition,  The  Results  of,  182 
Cramping  and  Stopping,  149,  183 
Crinoidal  Marbles,  13 


224 


INDEX. 


DEFECTIVE    Marble    is    Used, 

Why,  183 

Derbyshire  Marbles,  107 
Devonshire  Marbles,  103,  105,  162 

ECONOMICS  of  Marble  Working, 

The,  159,  165 
European  and  American  Quarrying 

Methods  Compared,  47 


"  Marble,  180 
Fixing  Marble,  Notes  on,  170 
Fossiliferous  Marbles,  6,  11 
French  Marble  Working,  124 
French  Marbles,  Prolific  Yield  of,  77 
French  Marbles  :  the  King's  Store- 

house, 76 
Frosterley  Marble,  111,  161 

GEOLOGIC  Occurrence  of  Marble, 

The,  7 
Greek     Marbles,    The     Decorative 

Effect  of,  89 
Gypsum,  Chemical  Composition  of,  7 

HISTORICAL  Notes  on  Marble, 

18,  76,  78,  80,  90 

Home  Working  of  Marble,  The,  161 
Hopton-Wood  Stone,  5,  107,  109 

INDIAN  Marbles,  115 
Instances  of  British  Marble  Work- 

ing, 167,  168 
lona  Marble,  1  1  0 


Irish  Marbles,  113 
Italian  Alabaster,  17,  75 
Italian  Coloured  Marbles,  74 
Italian  Marble  Working,  126 
Italy  the  Principal  Source  of  Supply, 
69 

KILKENNY  Marbles,  113, 1 62 
LAMINATED  Marbles,  16 

Libel  011  Marble,  A,  183 

List  of   Marbles  in  Ordinary  Use, 

arranged  in  Alphabetical  Order, 

187-222 

McKTNLEY  Tariff,  The,  151-2 
Magnesian  Limestone,  6 
"  Manu-Marble,"  179 
Marble  : 

An  Interesting  Study,  3 

Chemistry  of,  4 

For  Electrical  Purposes,  64 

For  Hospital  Fittings,  62,  1 75 
Marble  Working  : 

A  Specialised  Industry,  120,  172 

In  Belgium,  122 

In  France,  124 

In  Italy,  126 
Marble  Working  Machinery  : 

The  Blocking  Machine,  136 

The  Diamond  Saw,  132 

The  Frame  Saw,  131 

The  "Jenny  Lind,"  136 

The  Lathes,  145 

The  Pneumatic  Hammer  127,  144 

The  Hip  Saw,  132 


INDEX. 


225 


Marble  Working  Machinery  : 
The  Rotaries,  134 
The  Rubbing  Bed,  134 
The  Spinner,  136 
The  "  Steam  Mason,"  138 
The  Universal  Machine,  140 

Marbles  in  Ordinary  Use,  Alpha- 
betical List  of,  187-222 

Marmocrete  :  A  New  Process,  56 

Marmorosis,  4 

Methods  of  Extraction : 
Channelling,  40,  47 
Hand  Drilling,  28 
Machine  Drilling,  29 
Mining  for  Marble,  45,  84 
The  Penetrating  Pulley,  36 
The  Quarry  Bar,  31 
The  Wire  Saw,  32 

Methods  of  Transport,  71 

Mexican  Onyx,  101 

NEW  Sources  of   Supply,  1,   91, 

114,  116 

New  South  Wales,  Marbles  of,  116 
Norwegian  Marbles,  51,  95 
Notes  on  Marble  Fixing,  170 

PENTELIKON  Marble,  20,  51, 

86,  171 

Petit  Granit,  82,  148 
Pneumatic  Tools,  The  Use  of,  127, 

144 

Portuguese  Marbles,  93 
Possibilities   of   a   Colonial   Trade, 

The,  114,  117 
Protective    Measures    of     Belgian 

Manufacturers,  120 


Pudding-stones,  13 
Purbeck  Marble,  111,  161 
Pyrenean  Marbles,  77 

QUARRY  Methods,  A  Comparison 

of  European  and  American,  47 
Quarrying  Machinery,  29 

RAILWAY  Rates,  104 

Reconstructed  Marble,  173 
Reconstructed  Stone,  175 
Rejection  of  Unsuitable  Material 

The,  185 

Rouge,  Belgian,  80 
Rouge  de  Ranee,  80 

SACCHAROIDAL  Marbles,  9 

Saint  Anne's  Marble,  81 
"Scagliola"  Marble,  177 
Selection  of  Marble  for  Decorative 

Purposes,  Hints  on  the,  184 
Serpentine,    Chemical   Composition 

of,  6 

Serpentinous  Marbles,  16 
Shop-fitting,  Marble  for,  62,  163 
Sicilian  Marble,  55,  73 
Sources  of  Supply,  1,  25,  69 
South  African  Marbles,  116 
Spanish  Marbles,  Ancient,  90 
Spanish  Marbles,  Modern,  65,  91 
Spine  Finish,  The,  158 
Staffordshire  Marbles,  7,  103,  111 
Statuary  Marble,  60,  73 
Statuary  Marble,  How  to  Select,  61 
Sweden,  Marble  from,  96 
Switzerland,  Marble  from,  94 

Q 


226 


INDEX. 


TABLE  Tops,  Marble  for,  65 

Taj  Mahal,  The,  115 

Tariff  on  Worked  Marble,  A,  105, 

151 

Tombstone  Trade,  The,  61,  164 
Transport  Charges,  71,  114,  117 
Travertines,  7,  16,  20,  98 
Tunisian  Marbles,  78 

UlSriCOLOURED  Marbles,  11 
United  States  of  America,  Marbles 
of  the,  97 


Unsuitability  of  Coloured  Marbles 
for  Exteriors,  58 

VARIEGATED  Marbles,  11 

Verde  Antico  Marble,  23,  85 

WALL  Marble  Mosaic,  178 
Weathering  of  Marble,  The  : 

Derbyshire,  109 

Greek,  53 

Italian,  55,  57 

YAVA  Onyx,  98 


LONDON  :    PRINTED  BY  WILLIAM  CLOWES  AND  SONS,  LIMITED, 
DUKE  STREET,  STAMFORD  STREET,   S.E.,  AND  GREAT  WINDMILL  STREET,  W. 


AD  VEE  TISEMENTS. 


STONE  FIRMS, 

LIMITED. 


HEAD  OFFICES  AND  WORKS  :  LONDON   OFFICE  : 

WIRKSWORTH,  DERBYSHIRE.  134.  CHEAPSIDE,  E.G. 

TELEGRAMS  :       HOPTONWOOD,  WIRKSWORTH."  TELEGRAMS  :      GUTTRIDGE,  LONDON. 

TELEPHONE  :  No.  9,  WIRKSWORTH.  TELEPHONE  :  2759  CENTRAL. 


OWNERS  and  WORKERS  of  the 

ONLY  QUARRIES  PRODUCING 

HOPTON=WOOD   STONE. 

Quarries :  Marbles  : 


NORTON, 
MIDDLETON, 


HOPTON-WOOD, 
DERBY  FOSSIL, 


COAL    HILLS,   and  BIRDSEYE, 

MIDDLE    PEAK.  BLACK, 


We  supply   Rough   Blocks,   Sawn    Slabs,    or   Scantlings;   also 

Finished  Work,  Constructional  or  Decorative,  either  Ex-Works, 

Delivered  on  Site,  or  Fixed  Complete* 


IS  THE 


STRONGEST 


AND 


MOST    RELIABLE 


OF  ALL  THE 


BRITISH  MARBLES. 


IT  IS  POSSESSED  OF 

GOOD  WEATHERING 
QUALITIES 


AND  HAS 


NEVER  BEEN  KNOWN 


TO 


DETERIORATE. 


Write   fop  Descpiptive  Illustrated    Brochure   either   to   the 
Head  Office,   OP  to  London. 

The  HOPTON=WOOD  STONE  FIRMS,  Ltd. 

WIRKSWORTH,  DERBYSHIRE.  134,    CHEAPSIDE,  LONDON     E.G. 

Q   2 


ADVERTISEMENTS. 


ANSELMODLING&  SONS, 

MARBLE   AND   GRANITE    MERCHANTS 

AND 

QUARRY    OWNERS. 

HEAD   OFFICE— 

Crown  Wharf,  132,  New  North  Road,  LONDON. 

NORTHERN    OFFICE- 

Exchange  Wharf,  285,  Vauxhall  Rd.,  LIVERPOOL. 

Also  Depots  at  New  Cleveland  Street,  HULL  ;  45,  Anderston  Quay,  GLASGOW  ; 

Sutton  Harbour,  PLYMOUTH ; 
And  at  SYDNEY,  MELBOURNE,  ADELAIDE,  BRISBANE. 


OWNERS 

of  the 

celebrated 

Quarries  of 

PIASTRA, 

CARBONERA, 

QUERCIOLA, 

VERZOLINA, 

all  in  the  best 

portion  of  the 

Carrara  Marble 

District. 


Carrara  Office : 
Via  Verde. 


SOLE  AGENTS 

for  the 
newly  opened 
COLOURED 

MARBLE 
QUARRIES    OF 
CALABRIA. 


LARGE  STOCKS 

OF  ALL 

WELL-KNOWN 

MARBLES 

IN 

LONDON  AND 
LIVERPOOL 


DECORATIVE    MARBLE    WORK   of    every   description  carried 

out  either  in  our  Italian  Studios  or  our  well-equipped  workshops  in 

London  or  Liverpool. 


Contractors  for  Marble  Work  at   New  Sessions  House,    Old  Bailey, 
Lancaster     Town     Hall,     Birmingham     Cathedral,     Gwalia     Hotel, 

Coliseum,  &c. 


MARBLE  MEMORIALS  FOR  THE  TRADE  ONLY.       LARGE  STOCKS. 


AD  VEE  TISEMENTS. 


in 


WHITE  PENTELIKON 


C/POLL//VO 
ROSSO 

T/A/OS 
SKYRO 


FROM  THE   ORIGINAL  ANCIENT 
GREEK  QUARRIES  OF 


MARMOR    LIMIP 


IS  FINSBURY  SQUARE 

LONDON    E.G. 


iv  ADVERTISEMENTS. 


Of  the  WHite  Marbles  of  Oarrara 
that      known      in      the      Trade      as 

"SICILIAN" 


IS     THE 


Best  of  an  Marble 

For  Building  Purposes. 


Its  enduring  qualities  have  stood  the  test  of  time,  as  is 
proved  in  London  by  such  public  examples  as  the 
MARBLE  ARCH  (erected  about  1825)  and  the  ALBERT 
MEMORIAL  (erected  1862-72)* 

Carrara  Marble  has  also  been  specially  selected  by  the 
eminent  Sculptor,  Thomas  Brock,  Esq*,  R* A.  (whose  thorough 
knowledge  of  the  enduring  qualities  of  Marble  for  outdoor 
work  is  acknowledged  by  all),  for  the  National  Memorial 
to  Queen  Victoria,  now  in  course  of  erection  in  front  of 
Buckingham  Palace*  This  selection  was  made  after  careful 
comparison  with  all  the  other  Marbles  now  on  the  market* 

The  Public  Buildings  of  Rome  are  mostly  built  of  Carrara 
Marble,  and  when  Augustus  boasted  that  he  found  Rome  of 
brick  and  left  it  of  Marble,  it  was  to  Carrara  Marble  that 
he  principally  alluded.  Juvenal  describes  in  verse  the  huge 
size  of  the  blocks  brought  to  Rome  from  Carrara* 

The  chief  recommendations  of  Carrara  (Sicilian)  Marble 
are  that  it  does  not  absorb  the  moisture  from  exposure  to 
the  London  atmosphere ;  that  it  can  be  easily  cleaned ;  that 
it  costs  considerably  less  to  work  than  any  other  White 
Marble;  that  its  soundness  and  homogeneity  render  it  par- 
ticularly suitable  for  constructional  work  where  the  weight- 
carrying  capacity  of  the  material  is  a  consideration,  and  for 
Staircases,  Paving,  &c*,  it  is  unrivalled* 

It  can  be  obtained  from  all  Marble  Merchants  at  com- 
petitive prices*  There  is  no  monopoly* 


AD  VERTISEMENTS. 


TO  ARCHITECTS  and  SCULPTORS 

THROUGHOUT 
THE  KINGDOM. 


WE  INVITE  enquiries  for  any  class  of 
work  to  be  executed  in  Italian  Marble, 

TO  ARCHITECTS,  we  would  like  to 
demonstrate  our  ability  to  execute 
interior  marble  work  of  any  descrip- 
tion, and 

TO  SCULPTORS,  the  facilities  we  have 
for  reproducing  their  clay  models  at  a 
reasonable  cost. 


WRITE    TO    US 

and  we  will   show  it   is  to   your   advantage 
to  place  orders  with  us. 


The  Italian  Marble  Co.,  Limited, 

POLITEAMA,  CARRARA,  ITALY. 


London  Agency— 283,  KINGSLAND    ROAD,  N.E. 


vi  ADVERTISEMENTS. 

Walton,  Gooddy  s  Cripps,u 

(CAPITAL    £225,000.) 

TELEGRAMS:  MARBLE    QUARRY    OWNERS  TELEPHONE: 

-    -    -  AND  WORKERS,  -    -    - 


EAGLE   WHARF    ROAD,   LONDON,  N. 


Also  at 


CANON'S    MARSH,    BRISTOL. 
PARLIAMENT    STREET,    LIVERPOOL. 


CARRARA,    ITALY. 

AGENTS    FOR    VERDE    ANT/CO    MARBLE. 

MARBLE  FOR  BUILDINGS. 

As  Marble  is  now  coining  more  and  more  into  use  for  Constructional 
Building,  we  would  call  special  attention  to  "Sicilian  Marble," 

which  is  unquestionably  the  best  for  this  purpose. 

It  is  of  fine  appearance,  does  not  change  colour  in  the  London 
atmosphere,  and  its  enduring  qualities  have  been  fully  proved. 

We  have  recently  executed  a  large  building  in  South  America,  and 
we  are  now  engaged  on  the  National  Theatre,  Mexico  City,  which  is 
being  erected  at  a  cost  of  over  £1,000,000  sterling. 


MEXICAN    ONYX. 

We  have  recently  been  appointed  Agents  for  this  beautiful  decora- 
tive material,  and  shall  be  pleased  to  furnish  Architects  or  clients 
with  samples  and  full  particulars. 

Blocks  up  to  10  ft.  long  can  be  readily  obtained. 

We  also  keeo  a  large  stock  of  Blocks  and  Slabs  of  all  the  merchant- 
able Coloured  Marbles.  Prices  and  particulars  on  application. 

QUEEN  VICTORIA  NATIONAL  MEMORIAL. 

We  have  been  entrusted  by  the  Sculptor,  Mr.  Brock,  R.A.,  with 
an  Architectural  portion  of  this  important  work  now  in  course  of 
erection  in  front  of  Buckingham  Palace,  and  having  our  own  Quarries, 
large  Studios,  and  an  expert  Staff,  we  are  in  a  unique  position  to  carry 
out  Marble  Decoration  of  all  kinds — Halls,  Floors,  Chimney  Pieces, 
&c.,  &c. 

We  shall  be  pleased  to  estimate  and  supply  samples  for  any 
description  of  Marble  or  Granite  Work, 


ADVERTISEMENTS.  vii 

ESTABLISHED    1895. 

H.  T.  DEMPSTER, 


Marble  Merchant  and 


Worker  in    Marbles. 


SPECIAL  ATTENTION 

given  to  High-class  Marble  Work  and 
Statuary  for  ... 

ARCHITECTURAL, 
DECORATIVE, 
ECCLESIASTICAL,  and 
MONUMENTAL  PURPOSES. 


H.  T.  DEMPSTER, 

CARRARA,   Italy. 


ADDRESS    ALL    COMMUNICATIONS    TO    CARRARA. 


viii  ADVERTISEMENTS. 


FOR  MARBLE  IN  BLOCK  OR   SLAB   AND   MANUFACTURED   WORK 
of  every  description,  apply  to  the 

SOCIETE    ANONYME 

DE 

MERBES  LE  CHATEAU, 

BELGIUM. 

LATE  PUISSANT  FRERES.  ESTABLISHED  1782. 

QUARRY    OWNERS   AND    MARBLE  WORKERS. 
MARBLES  FROM  ALL  PARTS  OF  THE  WORLD, 

BLACK    AND     ROUGE     MARBLE    TILES     A     LEADING    FEATURE. 


Extensive  Factories,  fully  equipped  with  modern  machinery, 
ensuring  the  speedy  working  and  prompt  delivery  of  all 
kinds  of  marble  work. 


INTERIOR  DECORATIVE  WORK  A  SPECIALITY. 


Head  Office :— Merbes  le  Chateau,  Belgium. 

Factories: — La  Buissiere,  Onoz,  and  Poulseur  (Belgium)  ;  Jeumont 
(France) ;  Hamburg  and  Diisseldorf  (Germany). 

Marble  Depot  for  Rough  Blocks  .-—Carrara  (Italy). 

Showrooms  and  Warehouses: — Brussels,  Paris,  Berlin,  Vienna,  and 
St.  Petersburg. 

Agencies: — London,  Prague,  Budapesth,  Jassy,  Constantinople,  Salonica, 
Smyrna,  Cairo,  Madrid,  Tokio,  Montreal,  and  Rio  de  Janeiro. 

Codes  used: — A  B  C  (4th  and  5th  Editions),  Anglo-American.  International 
Maritime,  Lieber's,  and  Western  Union. 


THE    TRADE    ONLY    SUPPLIED. 

SOLE  REPRESENTATIVE  FOR  THE  UNITED  KINGDOM :— 

MR.  MARCEL  LECLERCQ,  1,  PALLISER  ROAD,  LONDON,  W. 


ADVERTISEMENTS.  ix 

ARBLE. 

CONSTRUCTIONAL 

DECORATIVE 
ECCLESIASTICAL 
SANITARY  WORK. 


TVo    Order   is    Too    Large  for  Our  Resources. 
None  Is    Too  Small  for  Our   Attention. 

SPECIAL    TO    THE    TRADE. 

WE  control  Large  Supplies  of  SELECTED  BLOCKS 

and    SAWN    SLABS,    and    are   able    to   deliver   to 

YOUR  REQUIREMENTS  at  short  notice. 


LAMIGEON 

AND3CO.,    LIMITED, 
FINSBURY  PAVEMENT  HOUSE, 

isssssu     "LONDON,  E.C.       -— 

LONDON  LONDON   WALL. 

ABC  CODE  (4TH  EDITION). 


A  D  VEE  TISEMENTS. 


DIESPEKER,  LTD 

frinb  of  flftosaic 


suitable  for  tbe  floors  an&  Decoration  of  all  classes  of  JSuilDings. 

PATENT  WALL  PARTITIONS. 

Fire-proof,  Sound-proof,  and  Non-conducting.      Great  Strength  and  Rigidity. 

Patent  Interlocking   Floor   Blocks. 

Patent  Veined  Marbles  &  Marble  Granite. 

PATENT  WALL  MARBLE  MOSAIC. 

The  Most  Sanitary  Wall  Covering. 

Patent  Mosaic  Steps. 

PATENT  VEINED  MARBLES. 

Patent  Reinforced  Stone. 

DIESPEKER  DUNLOP  RUBBER  FLOORS. 

Granitic  Paving  and  Stairs. 

Tiling  and  Parquetry. 

Marble  Walls  and   Floors. 

PATENT    PH  ALTO  ME  NT. 

The  best  of  all  Composition  Floors. 

For   Designs   and    Estimates  apply  to   .... 

DIESPEKER,  LTD. 

57-60,   HOLBORN   VIADUCT,    LONDON. 

And  fit  LiverpooliManchesterjBirminghamrUedScNewcastle,  Bradford.  Glasgow,  and  Belfast. 


ADVERTISEMENTS.  xi 

DEVILLERS  &  CO.,  Ltd. 

Marpent  (Nord),   France. 

MARBLE    MERCHANTS,   QUARRY    OWNERS, 
MARBLE    MANUFACTURERS. 


Marbles  in  Blocks  and  Slabs. 
Table  Tops.  Chimney-Pieces. 
Columns.  Carved  Caps  6  Bases. 


GREAT      DECORATIVE      JOBS      A      SPECIALITY. 


References    of    works    supplied    in    France,    Belgium,    Denmark, 
Germany,   Sweden,   Great  Britain,   America,  and  other  countries. 


PRICES     AND     ESTIMATES     FREE     ON     APPLICATION. 

REVUE  QENERALE  DE  LA 
CONSTRUCTION, 

And    the    Illustrated    Supplement,   the 

Journal  de  la  Marbrerie  et  de  1'art  decoratif, 


Great  Circulation  of  1O.OOO  copies  twice 
a  month.  Sent  to  the  Architects,  Contrac- 
tors, Marble  Masons  around  the  World. 


ADMINISTRATION     IN     MARPENT    (NORD),     FRANCE. 
OFFICE    OF    DIRECTION     IN     PARIS. 


Subscription,   1O/~  yearly,   including  postage. 


ADVERTISEMENTS. 


DEVONSHIRE  MARBLE  QUARRY     X<^ 
-  OWNERS  -         /C& 


and  Importers  of  every 
description  of     .      .     . 

FOREIGN 
MARBLE. 


Contractors 

Marble  Work 
s-  _ 

of    all    descriptions. 

*f 

SAMPLES  &  ESTIMATES  FREE  UPON  APPLICATION. 


Ringborg  Green  Marble 

THE      SOUNDEST      COLORED 
MARBLE    IN    THE     MARKET. 

Absolutely  best  material  for 

TILES,    SLABS, 

TABLE    TOPS,    COLUMNS, 

MOULDED    WORK,    &c. 


Quarried    and    Worked    by 

Nya  Marmorbruks  Akticbolagct,  Norrkoping,  Sweden. 


ADVERTISEMENTS. 


GREENBANK  &  EDMONDSON, 

Sculptors  and  Marble  Workers, 

BARNSBURY  GROVE,  LONDON,  N. 

TELEPHONE  No.  1387  NORTH. 

Specialists  in  High  Grade  Chimney-pieces  of  the  Adams 
and  Georgian  Periods. 


Xd&YYYVVlSK&SSft  'II  111  I J  2  772  JIITIZ1 


While  the  above  class  of  work  is  our  special  line,  we  are 

in  a  position  to  supply  General  Decorative  and  Ecclesiastical 

Work  to  advantage,  and  Architects  are  invited  to  forward  us 

their  enquiries. 


GREENBANK   &  EDMONDSON, 
BARNSBURY  GROVE,  LONDON,  N- 


xiv  ADVERTISEMENTS. 


The  Art  Pavements 
and  Decorations,  Ltd. 

WORKS:  7    EMERALD  STREET, 

St.  Paul's  Crescent, 

camdenTown,N.w.      Theobald's  Road,  LONDON,  W.C 


Merchants    and    Manufacturers, 


MARBLE   MASONRY 
MARBLE  STEPS. 
MARBLE   COLUMNS. 
MARBLE   WALL   LININGS. 
MARBLE   CURBS  and  SLIPS. 
MARBLE   COUNTERS. 
MARBLE   TILES. 


Mosaics,  Wall  and  Floor  Tiles,  Parquetry, 


REFERENCES s 

LONDON  &  COUNTY  BANK,  LOMBARD  STREET,  E.G. 

SALISBURY  HOUSE,  LONDON  WALL,  E.G. 

INDEMNITY  HOUSE,  1,  OLD  BROAD  STREET,  E.G. 

WINCHESTER  COLLEGE,  WINCHESTER. 

NORFOLK  &  NORWICH  SAVINGS  BANK,  NORWICH. 

CARTWRIGHT  MEMORIAL,  BRADFORD. 

ST.  BOTOLPH'S  CHURCH,  BISHOPSGATE,  E.G. 

TROCADERO  RESTAURANT,  LONDON,  W. 

WAR  MEMORIAL,  SHEFFIELD. 

SHELL  TRANSPORT  OFFICES,  BISHOPSGATE,  E.G. 

MESSRS.  DEWAR'S  PREMISES,  HAYMARKET,  W. 

GENERAL  STEAM  NAVIGATION  CO.'S  OFFICES,  LONDON. 


Some  of  the  above  works  are  mentioned  in  Ren  wick's  "Marble  &  Marble  Working, 


AD  VER  TISEMENTS. 


xv 


GEORGE  ANDERSON  &  GO. 

(1905)  LTD. 

CARNOUSTIE,  SCOTLAND, 

Are      SPECIALISTS      in     the 
manufacture  of  all  kinds  of 

Marble  .  . 
Working.  . 
Machinery, 


They  have   supplied 

-  DIAMOND   SAWS 

AND 

ABRASIVE     MACHINES 

to   all   the  principal  Marble  Workers 

in   Great   Britain,  the   United   States, 

and  the  Continent. 


THE    PIONEERS     OF    TRADE,    AND 
LARGEST  MAKERS  IN  THE  WORLD. 


xvi  ADVERTISEMENTS. 


COULTER   «S   CO., 

BANK  FOOT  FOUNDRY,  BATLEY,  YORKS. 


Patent  Stone  and  Marble  Dressing 
and  Moulding  Machine. 


For  all  kinds  of  plain,  straight  moulded,  and  stopped  end 
work,  being  so  simple  that  any  man  can  understand  and  work  one 
in  a  few  hours,  and  with  our  new  Patent  Combined  Link  Turnover 
Motion  and  Trip  Guide  Motion  for  automatically  reversing  table  if 
started  in  wrong  direction,  and  Patent  Automatic  Dog  Bracket, 
permits  any  practical  speed  of  table  according  to  the  hardness  of 
the  stone,  and  provides  every  practical  means  against  fear  of  break- 
down by  carelessness  in  handling. 

Will  do  the  work  of  10  men,  saving  75%  of  the  cost  of  working  the  material. 

3  to  4  H.P.  only  required  for  driving  T2  ft.  x  5  ft.  x  4  ft,  size  of  machine. 

All  sizes  manufactured  and  at  work  from  9  ft.  X  2  ft.  6  in.  x  2  ft.  Gin. 
to  15ft.  x  8ft.  6  in.  x  6  ft. 


Accurately  and  powerfully  constructed  so  as  to  properly  distribute 
the  weight,  thereby  giving  rigidity  in  cutting  and  long  life  value. 

Also  makers  of  Patent  Double  Headed  Scabbling  Machines  and 
Short  Stroke  Stone  Saw,  &c.,  &c. 

Specifications,  Particulars,  and  Prices  on  Application. 


ADVERTISEMENTS.  xvii 


MARBLE!  MARBLE!! 
MARBLE  ! ! ! 

THE  LEADING  MARBLE  HOUSE  IN  FRANCE 


IS  THAT  OF 


HENRY    VIENNE 


OF 
VIENNE,  COUSOLRE.  OWUOGLntL  VIENNE,  COUSOLRE. 


COUSOLRE 


OWNERS  OF  THE  CELEBRATED  ROUGE  DE  RANGE  QUARRIES. 
HOLDERS  OF  MARBLE  STOCKS  FROM  ALL  PARTS  OF  THE  WORLD. 
WORKERS  OF  MARBLE  OF  EVERY  DESCRIPTION. 


WHILE  OUR  SPECIAL  LINE  IS  CHIMNEY-PIECES  OF  THE 
LOUIS  XV.  AND  EMPIRE  PERIODS,  WE  GIVE  PARTICULAR 
ATTENTION  TO  CONSTRUCTIONAL  AND  DECORATIVE 
WORK;  AND  ENDEAVOUR  TO  MAKE  EACH  CUSTOMER 
A  PERMANENT  ONE,  AND  EVERY  CONTRACT  A  RECOM- 
MENDATION FOR  FURTHER  WORK. 

ECCLESIASTICAL     WORK     A      LEADING      FEATURE. 

SCULPTURE  AND  MONUMENTAL  WORK  EXECUTED 

WITH   ARTISTIC    FEELING. 


—OUR    MOTTO— 

ECONOMY.        DILIGENCE. 
DESPATCH. 


SOLE      REPRESENTATIVES      FOR      THE      UNITED      KINGDOM:- 

LAM  I G EON   AND  Co.,   LTD., 

FINSBURY     PAVEMENT    HOUSE, 

TELEGRAMS—  LONDON         E.C.  TELEPHONE— 

ARQUEBUSE,  LONDON.  2474  LONDON  WALL. 


XV111 


AD  VEETISEMENTS. 


Published 

on  the  First  of 

each  month. 


Single  Copy  -  6d. 

Annual  Subscription, 

IOs.  post  free, 
(7s.  6d.  if  prepaid.) 


ADVERTISEMENT 

RATES  ON 
APPLICATION. 


FOUNDED    1896. 


THe 


Quarry, 


The  Organ  of  the 

Stone,  Marble,  Slate, 

Lime,  Clay,  and  Cement 

Trades. 


Circulating 
amongst 

Quarry  Owners 
and  Managers, 
Architects, .  . 
Engineers,  .  . 
Surveyors,  .  . 
Stone  .  .  . 
Merchants,  &c. 


Price  5s.  net. 


APPLIED 
GEOLOGY. 


BY 

J.  V.  ELSDEN,  F.Q.S.,  B.Sc.  (Lond.). 

Demy  8vo.,  bound  in  cloth. 
Two  Vols. 

PROFUSELY     ILLUSTRATED. 


Industrial 
Investigation. 

"THE  QUARRY." 

(Investigation,  Testing,  and 
Analysis  Department). 


STONE 

Quarrying  and  Preparation 
for  the  Market. 

BY 

ALLAN   QREENWELL, 

F.G.S.,  Assoc.  M.  Inst.  C.E., 

AND 

J.  V.  ELSDEN,  P.G.S,,  B.Sc.  (Lond.). 


Price  5s. 

ROADS: 

Their    Construction    and 
Maintenance. 

With  Special  Reference  to  Road  Materials. 
BY 

ALLAN    QREENWELL, 

F.G.S.,  Assoc.  M.  Inst.  C.E., 

AND 

J.  V.  ELSDEN,  F.Q.S.,  B.Sc.  (Lond.). 


THE  COLLIERY  GUARDIAN  CO.,  LTD., 

30  &  31,  FURNIVAL  STREET,  HOLBORN,  LONDON,   B.C. 


ADVERTISEMENTS. 


FRO5TERLEY 
MARBLE 

—  a  prominent   feature   in    Cathedrals  and 
Castles  of  the  United  Kingdom- 

is    supplied    in    Rough    Blocks    from    the 
Quarries  of  the 

HAREHOPE  MINING  8  QUARRYING  Co."  LTD. 

FROSTERLEY  R.S.O., 

WEARDALE,  Co.  DURHAM. 

For  finished  work,  information  and  quotations 
can  be  obtained  from  the  Company,  and  from  all 
the  leading  Marble  Merchants  in  the  Kingdom. 

NOTE- 

FOR   .   .   . 

ECCLESIASTICAL, 
DECORATIVE,  and 
INTERIOR  WORK, 

this   Marble   is  unrivalled. 


ADVEETISEMENTS. 


BOOKSforARCHECS 


Royal  8vo. ,  cloth,   7s.  6d.  net. 

Practical   Masonry 

A  GUIDE  TO  THE  ART  OF  STONE  CUTTING. 

Comprising  the  Construction,  Setting-out,  and  Working  of  Stairs, 
Circular  Work,  Arches,  Niches,  Domes,  Pendentives,  Vaults,  Tracery 
Windows,  -&c.  To  which  are  added  Supplements  relating  to  Masonry 
Estimating  and  Quantity  Surveying,  and  to  Building  Stones  and 

Marbles,  and  a  Glossary  of  Terms. 
FOR  THE  USE  OF  STUDENTS,  MASONS,  AND  CRAFTSMEN 

By  WILLIAM  R.  PURCHASE, 

Building  Inspects-  to  the  Borough  of  Hove. 

With  52  Lithographic  Plates,  comprising  over  400  Diagrams. 
FIFTH  EDITION,  ENLARGED. 


580  pages,  medium  8vof  cloth,   7s.  6d.  net. 

Practical    Building 
Construction. 

A  Handbook  for  Students   preparing  for  the    Examinations  of   The 

Board  of  Education,  The  Royal  Institute  of  British  Architects,  The 

Surveyors'  Institution,  &c.     Designed  also  as  a  Book  of  Reference  for 

Persons  engaged  in  Building. 

By  JOHN   PARNELL  ALLEN, 

Professional  Associate  of  the  Surveyors'  Institution,  Lecturer  on  Building  Construction  at 
the  Durham  College  of  Science,  Newcastle-on-Tyne. 

FIFTH  EDITION,   REVISED   AND  ENLAEGED. 
Containing  over  One  Thousand  Illustrations. 


Crown  8vo.,  cloth,  3s.  6d. 

Marble  Decoration 

AND  THE  TERMINOLOGY  OF  BRITISH  AND  FOREIGN  MARBLES. 

A  Handbook  for   Students. 

By  GEORGE   H.  BLAGROVE. 

With  28  Illustrations. 
"  Should  be  in  the  hands  of  every  architect  and  builder."— Building  World. 

LONDON:  CROSBY  LOCKWOOD  &  SON, 
7,  STATIONERS'  HALL  COURT,  LUDGATE  HILL,  E.G. 


ADVERTISEMENTS. 


xxi 


THE    CANADIAN 

PRINCESS    BLUE 

MARBLE 

ALSO  KNOWN  AS 

ALOMITE. 

This  material  gives  a  Brilliance  of  Colour  unobtainable 
in  any  other  Decorative  Medium  (see  Plate  VIL,  facing 
p.  114),  By  piecing  in  similar  manner  to  Lapis  Lazuli, 
Malachite,  &c«,  it  is  available  for  interior  Decorative 
Treatments  ;  also  for  Table  Tops,  Ornaments,  and 

Inlaid  Work. 

THE   ONLY   COLONIAL    MARBLE 
IN    USE   IN   GREAT   BRITAIN. 

Varieties  can  be  supplied  containing  veinings  and  mark- 
ings of  different  colours  interspersing  the  blue  ground, 
and  producing  soft  combinations  of  an  effective  nature. 

For  Estimates  and  Further  Particulars  apply  to  the 

PRINCESS    QUARRIES    CO., 

15,   GEORGE   STREET, 
HANOVER    SQUARE,    LONDON,   W. 

TELEGRAMS:  TELEPHONE: 

EMBELLISHMENT,  LONDON.  2222  GERRARD. 


XX 11 


ADVERTISEMENTS. 


THE, 


BRITISH     STONE 

AND    M/VRBLE, 

.COMPANY 


Off  cess  Q ctnoufrooms 
11. 12,  ^JinsSury  o)quar&.  <£  (?. 

Works  an 


MflNUFfiCTURERS  ^WORKERS  oF 

RECONSTRUCTED 
STONE  ®  MARBLE. 


BUILDING  STONE.— OUR  PRODUCTS  ARE  MANUFACTURED  FROM  QUARRY 
DEBRIS,  OR  OTHER  SUITABLE  MATERIAL.  THEY  ARE  IDENTICAL  IN  FORMATION 
AND  CHEMICAL  COMPOSITION  WITH  THE  NATURAL  STONE,  BUT  HAVE  A 
GREATER  DENSITY,  AND  AN  ENTIRE  FREEDOM  FROM  LAMINATION.  CAEN, 
PORTLAND,  BATH,  KETTON,  HOPTON  WOOD.  CHILMARK,  MANSFIELD,  CLOSE- 
BURN,  YORK,  Ac.,  STONES  ARE  REPRODUCED  WITH  ACCURACY,  THE  CHARAC- 
TERISTIC FEATURES  BEING  RETAINED  IN  EACH  INSTANCE.  THE  PRICE  OF 
WORKED  STONE  DELIVERED  ON  SITE  OF  BUILDING  AVERAGES  TWENTY-FIVE 
PER  CENT  BELOW  THAT  OF  QUARRY-WROUGHT  MATERIAL.  .... 

MARBLE.— OUR  MARBLES  ARE  SOUND,  AND  ENTIRELY  FREE  FROM  FLAWS 
OR  VENTS.  THEY  CAN  BE  REPRODUCED  TO  ANY  DESIRED  VARIATION, 
AND  TAKE  A  BRILLIANT  POLISH.  MOULDINGS  WORKED  TO  ANY  SECTION. 
DECORATIVE  SCHEMES  CARRIED  OUT  TO  ARCHITECTS'  DESIGNS.  ... 


Ksif  f/2e 

fnspect  our  Process 


/' Caff  at  the  Offices 
Weur  our  ^Productions 


SEND    US   A   POST  CARD -OUR, 
TIEPRESENTATIVE  WILL  CALL  ON  \OU. 

TRe  British  Stone  ^Marble  Company  L£ 


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